Mitigating the Impacts of the First Nation Water Crisis in Ontario Using Indigenous Approaches by Rachel Arsenault, A thesis submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Indigenous Relations The Faculty of Graduate Studies Laurentian University Sudbury, Ontario, Canada © Rachel Arsenault, 2020 THESIS DEFENCE COMMITTEE/COMITÉ DE SOUTENANCE DE THÈSE Laurentian Université/Université Laurentienne Faculty of Graduate Studies/Faculté des études supérieures Title of Thesis Titre de la thèse Mitigating the Impacts of the First Nation Water Crisis in Ontario Using Indigenous Approaches Name of Candidate Nom du candidat Arsenault, Rachel Degree Diplôme Master of Department/Program Date of Defence Département/Programme Indigenous Relations Date de la soutenance December 18, 2020 APPROVED/APPROUVÉ Thesis Examiners/Examinateurs de thèse: Dr. Jorge Virchez (Supervisor/Directeur de thèse) Dr. Elizabeth Wenghofer (Committee member/Membre du comité) Dr. Darrel Manitowabi (Committee member/Membre du comité) Approved for the Faculty of Graduate Studies Approuvé pour la Faculté des études supérieures Dr. Lace Marie Brogden Madame Lace Marie Brogden Dr. Nathalie Gravel Acting Dean, Faculty of Graduate Studies (External Examiner/Examinateur externe) Doyenne intérimaire, Faculté des études supérieures supérieures(Internal Examiner/Examinateur interne) ACCESSIBILITY CLAUSE AND PERMISSION TO USE I, Rachel Arsenault, hereby grant to Laurentian University and/or its agents the non-exclusive license to archive and make accessible my thesis, dissertation, or project report in whole or in part in all forms of media, now or for the duration of my copyright ownership. I retain all other ownership rights to the copyright of the thesis, dissertation or project report. I also reserve the right to use in future works (such as articles or books) all or part of this thesis, dissertation, or project report. I further agree that permission for copying of this thesis in any manner, in whole or in part, for scholarly purposes may be granted by the professor or professors who supervised my thesis work or, in their absence, by the Head of the Department in which my thesis work was done. It is understood that any copying or publication or use of this thesis or parts thereof for financial gain shall not be allowed without my written permission. It is also understood that this copy is being made available in this form by the authority of the copyright owner solely for the purpose of private study and research and may not be copied or reproduced except as permitted by the copyright laws without written authority from the copyright owner. ii Abstract: Purpose: The purpose of this study is to speak with First Nation community members across Ontario to assess how they’ve been impacted by water insecurity and to share their perspectives on potential solutions and recommendations. While several reports and studies have been conducted over the past two decades by both levels of government, Indigenous and non-Indigenous organizations and individuals, little progress has been made toward achieving water security for First Nations. The research question for this thesis is what are Indigenous peoples saying about solutions to their water insecurity challenges? Methods: To answer this question, First Nation participants were asked questions to determine what the issues were from their perspective as well as inquiring about potential solutions. These questions provided details on the types of water systems being used by First Nations, identified inadequacies, and culminated in recommendations by those who live with water insecurity every single day. Results: Ten major themes resulted from the thematic analysis on the participant contributions. These themes included a discussion on the types of contamination found in communities, the impacts of water insecurity, the cultural significance of water to First Nations and the challenges caused by outdated water systems. Part of this research involved generating recommendations from the participants and these are as follows: 1) that Indigenous Knowledge (IK) and Indigenous laws be incorporated into potential solutions; 2) that both levels of government work with First Nations to solve the water insecurity challenges; 3) that community Leaders develop and implement community plans, environmental assessments, and impact studies to protect the community from iii contamination; and 4) that a “watchdog” organization be established by First Nations to assist communities with holding industry, neighbouring municipalities / towns, and tourists visiting or leasing property in First Nation communities accountable for water contamination. Conclusion: While much of the past research has been focused on the deficits, damages, and impacts to First Nations water security, this research study focuses on the potential for Indigenous led solutions to water security challenges. The research presented within this study demonstrates how an Indigenous research paradigm can inform Indigenous water security research. Keywords: First Nations, water crisis, Indigenous relations, natural law, water policy, BWAs iv Acknowledgements First off, I would like to acknowledge the incredible love and dedication that Josephine Mandamin Baa had for our waters, which was always at the forefront of my thoughts while writing this thesis. The incredible teachings that she bestowed on all of us will never be forgotten. This thesis would not have been possible without the assistance, guidance, and support from some of the First Nation water technicians in Ontario, my university professor Dr. Taima Moeke-Pickering, my thesis committee members Dr. Elizabeth Wenghofer, Dr. Darrel Manitowabi, Nick Benkovich, and my thesis supervisor Dr. Jorge Virchez, and a very big thank you to my research participants for your time, stories, and overall contributions. I would like to thank Kathleen Padulo for encouraging me to do a master’s thesis on water and for sharing information on the Human Rights Watch report which was a critical piece of my research studies. I would also like to thank Dr. Carrie Bourassa for hiring me and mentoring me as a student working with the Decolonizing Water Partnership Project and Dr. Deborah McGregor for co-mentoring me on the same project. You both taught me almost everything I know about water and I am incredibly grateful for the opportunities that you have given me. Thank you to Dr. Aaron Witham and Dr. Sibyl Diver for collaborating with me on the Decolonizing Water Partnership Project as colleagues and sharing your knowledge and experiences with me. I would like to take the time to acknowledge some very inspiring young people who shared their time and energy with me: Quinn Meawasige, Megan Logan, Jeremy Monias, Jade Willoughby, Dan Morriseau, and Mark Hill. Lastly, a big thank you to Councillor Slade McCalip and the other two First Nation water and infrastructure technicians for taking the time to share your perspectives and your experiences as technicians with me. v I would also like to acknowledge the Indigenous and non-Indigenous researchers whose research strengthened and enhanced my thesis such as Aimee Craft, Deborah McGregor, Merell Ann Phare, Amanda Klasing and the Chiefs of Ontario for their 2008 Water Declaration (among their other great works). I want to especially thank the Elders and the Knowledge Keepers for sharing their knowledge on the history of water in their communities and their perspectives on potential threats and improvements we should consider in our respective communities; the technicians for taking time out of their hectic work schedules to share their valuable knowledge and expertise on water; the youth who work so hard protecting our land and resources and speaking up for those generations to come – you are so inspiring and amazing and I am so proud to see all of the hard work that you do each and every day; and a gchi-miigwetch to the community Leaders, the council members and Chiefs for taking the time to share your history, knowledge, expertise, and ideas with me. Thank you to my family and friends for your encouragement and support and thank you to the rest of my professors in the MIR program for teaching me so much about Indigenous relations. vi Table of Contents Thesis Defence Committee……………………………………………………………………ii Abstract………………………………………………………………………….…………....iii Keywords……………………………………………………………………………………..iv Acknowledgements………………………………………………………………………...…v Table of Contents…………………………………………………………………….……....vii List of Figures………………………………………………………………………………...xi List of Acronyms…………………………………………………………………………..….x Chapter 1: Introduction………………………………………………………………………..1 1.1 Terminology……………………………………………………………………….6 1.2 Situating Self………………………………………………………………………7 1.3 Research Purpose and Objectives…………………………………………………9 Chapter 2: Literature Review…………………………………………………….....………..14 2.1 The First Nation Water Crisis…………………………………………………….14 2.2 Understanding Indigenous Water Governance……………………..…….......…..30 Chapter 3: Research Design and Indigenous Methodologies………………………………...36 3.1 Indigenous Research Paradigm…………………………………………………...36 3.2 Indigenous Research Methodology…………….…………………………………38 3.3 Method……………………………………………………………………………42 3.4 Data Collection and Rigor……………………………………………….……….48 3.5 Participant Selection……………………………………………………………...53 3.6 Community Selection….…………………………………………………………54 3.7 Consent…………………………………………………………………………...55 vii 3.8 Ethics………………………………………………………………………….….56 3.9 Methods of Analysis……….……………………………………………….…….57