THE CIVIL WAR REVIVAL AND ITS PENTECOSTAL PROGENY: A RELIGIOUS MOVEMENT AMONG THE IGBO PEOPLE OF EASTERN NIGERIA (1967-2002) by RICHARD HUGH BURGESS A thesis submitted to The University of Birmingham for the degree of DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY Department of Theology School of Historical Studies The University of Birmingam June 2004 University of Birmingham Research Archive e-theses repository This unpublished thesis/dissertation is copyright of the author and/or third parties. The intellectual property rights of the author or third parties in respect of this work are as defined by The Copyright Designs and Patents Act 1988 or as modified by any successor legislation. Any use made of information contained in this thesis/dissertation must be in accordance with that legislation and must be properly acknowledged. Further distribution or reproduction in any format is prohibited without the permission of the copyright holder. ii Abstract This thesis is a study of a Christian movement among the Igbo people of Eastern Nigeria from its origins in the Civil War Revival (1967-73) to the present. It argues that the success of the revival depended upon a balance between supply and demand. Colonial legacies, Western missionary endeavours, decolonisation, and civil war not only created new religious demands, they contributed to the formation of a missionary fellowship, able to exploit the disorder of Igbo society and the failure of existing religious options to fulfil traditional aspirations. The thesis shows that during its formative period the revival’s Pentecostal progeny also benefited from this missionary impulse, and the flexibility of Pentecostal spirituality, which enabled it to adapt to meet consumer demands. It examines the way the movement has evolved since the 1970s, and argues that the decline of its missionary impulse, combined with a paradigm shift from holiness to prosperity teaching, and a propensity to schism, have imposed limitations on its potential as an agent of transformation. Finally, it shows that during the 1990s, a further shift has occurred towards a theology of socio-political engagement, and examines the implications of this for the movement’s identity and influence in a pluralistic society. iii Acknowledgements This study has its roots in my life and work in Nigeria since 1990, and I am unable to mention all who have contributed in one way or another. I am grateful to Mission Africa and to the Qua Iboe Church of Nigeria, who made it possible for me to work in Nigeria. I would like to thank the Spalding Trust, and especially the Whitefield Institute, for helping to fund my research. Without their support, this thesis would not have been completed. My interest in African revival movements developed as I interacted with Christians in Nigeria and the UK. I am especially grateful to the late Robert Hyslop, whose enthusiasm for revival was infectious; to Bishop Dr. Cyril Okorocha, who encouraged me to embark on this research; and to Professor Ogbu Kalu and Rev. Amaechi Nwachukwu, whose idea it was to organise the ‘Remembering the Seventies’ Conference, which introduced me to so many key figures from the Civil War Revival. I would like to thank those who have provided hospitality throughout the research process, especially the community of Amazing Love Assembly in Enugu, Rev. Rufus Ogbonna and Mrs. Iris Ogbonna, Richard and Aureola Enwezor, Rev. and Mrs. Benjamin Ikedinobi, Rev. Godwin Nwosu, Rev. Dr Sid Garland and Mrs. Jean Garland, and the staff and students of the Theological College of Northern Nigeria. I am also grateful to Peter and Margaret Robins, Trevor and Ann Luke, and Canon Dr. Udobata Onunwe, for allowing me to stay in their homes during visits to Cambridge, Oxford, and Birmingham respectively. The present study has benefited from interactions with other scholars. Various parts of my thesis have been presented to seminar groups at the Whitefield Institute and the University of Birmingham, and I am grateful for the helpful comments from fellow research students and staff. I also wish to thank Dr. David Smith, Dr. David Cook, Professor Ogbu Kalu, Canon Dr. Udobata Onunwe, Dr. Sarah Williams, Dr. John Padwick, and Dr. Andrew Guyatt for taking the time to comment on my work. I am especially grateful to Dr. Allan Anderson, my supervisor, for his encouragement and invaluable suggestions, which have helped me to develop my research skills and improve my thesis. This study would not have been possible without the kind cooperation of former African revivalists, Pentecostals, and missionaries, willing to tell their stories and allow me to participate in their church activities. Special thanks to Dr. Stephen Okafor, Mrs. Frances Lawjua Bolton, Rev. Thompson Nwosu, Rev. David Adegboye, Pastor Leo Anorue, Dr. John Onuora, Rev. Ndubuisi Oti, and Rev. Raphael Okafor. I am also indebted to former Scripture Union travelling secretary Bill Roberts for his hospitality, and for allowing me access to his private papers. Many others, too numerous to mention, have contributed to the project. Some of their names are mentioned in the text of the thesis itself. I hope I have captured in this work a little of their vision and experience. Finally, I would also like to express my gratitude to Nigerian friends for making me feel at home in an unfamiliar culture, especially Pastor Ilya Kachalla, an invaluable assistant and friend during my six months field research in Jos, and Elder Akoh Abraham, who has been unstinting in his encouragement and kindness ever since I first met him in 1991. Above all, I thank my parents for their support in various ways over the years. This thesis is dedicated to them in gratitude, and to the glory of God. iv TABLE OF CONTENTS List of Illustrations and Tables..........................................................................................x List of Abbreviations........................................................................................................xi Maps...........................................................................................................Following p. xii CHAPTER ONE. CONSTRUCTING AFRICAN IDENTITIES.............................. 1 1. Introduction................................................................................................................. 1 1.1 Telling the Story...................................................................................................... 2 1.2 Explaining Patterns of Growth and Decline............................................................ 8 1.3 Transforming the Landscapes................................................................................ 18 1.4 Defining Revivals and African Pentecostalism..................................................... 21 1.4.1 Revival ............................................................................................................ 21 1.4.2 African Pentecostalism.................................................................................... 22 1.5 A Personal Story.................................................................................................... 25 2. Theoretical Considerations ...................................................................................... 28 2.1 Globalisation and African Identity........................................................................ 28 2.1.1 Constructing Identities .................................................................................... 28 2.1.2 Globalisation Theory....................................................................................... 30 2.1.3 Global Flows and Identity Construction ......................................................... 34 2.1.4 Globalisation as a Carrier of Modernity ......................................................... 35 2.2 Secularisation, Sacralisation, and Religious Pluralism ......................................... 39 2.3 Conversion and Identity ........................................................................................ 42 2.4 Narrative, Oral History, and Identity Construction............................................... 48 2.5 ‘Actual Life’ Theologies ....................................................................................... 53 3. Methodology.............................................................................................................. 56 3.1 Ethnography, Phenomenology, and the Study of Religion ................................... 57 3.2 Engaging with the Subjects ................................................................................... 61 4. Overview.................................................................................................................... 68 CHAPTER TWO. SKETCHING THE LANDSCAPES.......................................... 70 Introduction................................................................................................................... 70 1. Socio-political and Economic Landscapes (pre-2002)........................................... 72 1.1 Constructing Igbo Identity..................................................................................... 72 1.2 Socio-Political and Economic Cultures................................................................. 76 1.2.1 The Pre-Colonial Era....................................................................................... 77 1.2.2 Colonial Legacies............................................................................................ 80 1.2.3 The Post-Colonial State .................................................................................