Reconstructing Past Environments A study to the ecological changes in the Middle Pleistocene site Schöningen 13 II Neeke M. Hammers, 0737984 RMA Thesis Supervisor: Prof. dr. Th. van Kolfschoten Faculty of Archaeology, Leiden University June 2012 Content Abstract ............................................................................................................................... 4 Samenvatting ....................................................................................................................... 4 1. Introduction ................................................................................................................. 6 1.1. Aims .................................................................................................................... 8 1.2. Research questions .............................................................................................. 9 1.3. Archaeological relevance .................................................................................... 9 1.4. Data ................................................................................................................... 11 1.5. Outline ............................................................................................................... 12 2. Middle Pleistocene climatic history .......................................................................... 13 2.1. Middle Pleistocene interglacials ....................................................................... 15 2.2. Schöningen ........................................................................................................ 16 2.2.1. The Schöningen channels .......................................................................... 18 2.2.2. Stratigraphy ............................................................................................... 21 2.2.3. Sedimentology........................................................................................... 21 2.2.4. Dating ........................................................................................................ 22 3. Reconstructing ecosystems ....................................................................................... 24 3.1. Biomes .............................................................................................................. 24 3.2. Species diversity and richness in contemporary ecology and the fossil record 25 3.2.1. Species richness and range location .......................................................... 28 3.2.2. Species compositions – Pleistocene versus present .................................. 29 3.2.3. Contemporary and fossil carnivore distribution ........................................ 30 4. Taphonomy ............................................................................................................... 32 4.1. Accumulation .................................................................................................... 34 4.2. Soil chemistry ................................................................................................... 35 4.3. Spatial distribution and preservation patterns ................................................... 36 4.4. Living community vs. death assemblage .......................................................... 37 4.5. Sampling ........................................................................................................... 38 4.6. Time averaging and palimpsests ....................................................................... 39 1 4.7. Non-analogue communities .............................................................................. 42 5. Methods ..................................................................................................................... 45 5.1. Reconstructing ecosystems from the fossil record ............................................ 46 5.2. Methods and data .............................................................................................. 48 5.2.1. Archaeological sites .................................................................................. 50 5.2.2. Modern analogues ..................................................................................... 52 6. Data ........................................................................................................................... 55 6.1. Palynology ........................................................................................................ 55 6.1.1. Palynological characteristics per level .......................................................... 55 Level 1 ....................................................................................................................... 56 Level 2 ....................................................................................................................... 57 Level 3 ....................................................................................................................... 58 Level 4 ....................................................................................................................... 59 Level 5 ....................................................................................................................... 59 6.2. Non-mammalian fauna ...................................................................................... 60 6.2.1. Molluscs .................................................................................................... 61 6.2.2. Amphibians ............................................................................................... 62 6.2.3. Reptiles ...................................................................................................... 64 6.2.4. Fish ............................................................................................................ 67 6.2.5. Birds .......................................................................................................... 70 6.3. Mammalian fauna.............................................................................................. 73 6.3.1. Small mammal fauna ................................................................................. 73 6.3.2. Large mammals ......................................................................................... 78 6.3.2.1. Carnivora ............................................................................................... 79 6.3.2.2. Probiscidae ............................................................................................ 81 6.3.2.3. Perrisodactyla ........................................................................................ 82 6.3.2.4. Artiodactyla ........................................................................................... 82 7. Analysis ..................................................................................................................... 84 7.1. Diversity ............................................................................................................ 84 7.1.1. Diversity as environmental indicator ........................................................ 87 7.2. Amphibian and reptile introduction in Pleistocene interglacial cycles ............. 91 7.3. Soil chemistry ................................................................................................... 94 7.3.1. Results ....................................................................................................... 97 2 7.4. Middle Pleistocene environments in Schöningen 13 II ..................................... 99 7.5. Mammal species compositions in Schö 13 II .................................................. 101 7.6. Carnivores in the fossil record ........................................................................ 104 7.7. Predator-prey ratios in Schö 13 II compared to fossil assemblages and modern analogues ..................................................................................................................... 107 8. Environmental conclusions ..................................................................................... 111 8.1. Level 13 II-1 .................................................................................................... 111 8.2. Level 13 II-2 .................................................................................................... 113 8.3. Level 13 II-3 .................................................................................................... 114 8.4. Level 13 II-4 .................................................................................................... 115 9. Summarizing conclusions and discussion ............................................................... 117 References ....................................................................................................................... 122 List of figures .................................................................................................................. 131 List of tables .................................................................................................................... 132 Appendix I....................................................................................................................... 134 Appendix II ..................................................................................................................... 135 Appendix III .................................................................................................................... 136 Appendix IV ...................................................................................................................