THE JEWISH PROHIBITION AGAINST WASTEFULNESS: THE EVOLUTION OF AN ENVIRONMENTAL ETHIC TANHUM YOREH A DISSERTATION SUBMITTED TO THE FACULTY OF GRADUATE STUDIES IN PARTIAL FULFILLMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS FOR THE DEGREE OF DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY GRADUATE PROGRAM IN HUMANITIES YORK UNIVERSITY TORONTO, CANADA August 2014 © Tanhum Yoreh, 2014 Abstract Bal tashḥit, the Jewish prohibition against wastefulness and destruction, is considered to be an environmental ethic by Jewish environmentalists. This dissertation investigates whether this prohibition has the historical basis to be considered an environmental principle, or whether its environmental interpretation is mainly a contemporary development. To this end, the study uses the methodology of tradition histories. This research critically examines the conceptualisation of bal tashḥit as it develops throughout history. The dissertation traces the evolution of bal tashḥit through the examination of relevant passages dealing with wastefulness and destruction in Hebrew Scripture, rabbinic literature, halakhic codes, responsa, the accompanying commentary traditions, as well as the works of scholars in the field of Religion and Environment. It highlights the important stages in the development of the prohibition, notes the most influential scholars, and uncovers the critical vocabulary that emerges. The most significant finding of this research is that in the earliest stages of development (c. 1st-2nd centuries C.E.), the prohibition against wastefulness was conceptually linked with the prohibition against self-harm. This connection was rejected by sages of the Talmud (3rd-6th centuries C.E.) who asserted that these prohibitions are qualitatively different from one another. Ultimately, the separation between the two prohibitions became the predominant view, and their connection disappeared almost entirely from Jewish literature. When combined, these prohibitions create an environmental ethic: wastefulness and destruction are harmful to oneself; and in environmental terms: to harm the environment is to harm oneself. ii In memory of my grandfather and in honour of my family iii Acknowledgements First and foremost, I would like to thank my supervisors, Prof. Martin Lockshin and Prof. Eric Lawee, for their support and guidance throughout the years of my research. Their comments and suggestions have been invaluable, and they constantly pushed me to strengthen my arguments and improve my work. I would also like to thank the rest of my committee for their helpful feedback. All their suggestions have greatly improved this dissertation. The errors that undoubtedly remain are mine alone. I also owe a big thank you to the bodies that provided me with generous funding over the course of my research: the Israel and Golda Koschitzky Centre for Jewish Studies at York University, the Ontario Graduate Scholarship Program, the Yitzhak Rabin Fellowship Fund for the Advancement of Peace and Tolerance, and the Canadian Friends of the Hebrew University. Thank you, also, to all the libraries whose collections I used and benefited from: Scott Library (York University), Robarts Library (University of Toronto), John M. Kelly Library (University of Toronto), Josh W. Graham Library (University of Toronto), McLennan-Redpath Library (McGill University), Bloomfield Library for the Humanities and Social Sciences (Hebrew University of Jerusalem), Education and Social Work Library (Hebrew University of Jerusalem), The Law Library (Hebrew University of Jerusalem), The National Library of Israel, University Library (University of Cambridge), Divinity Faculty Library (University of Cambridge), Leo Baeck College Library (London), and The British Library (London). Thank you to my parents, Harry Fox and Tirzah Meacham, for acting as a sounding-board for my ideas, for encouraging me, and in particular for being generous with your time. Thank you to my wife, Shoshanna Saxe, who is a source of constant inspiration. Finally, thank you to the rest of my family for all your encouragement and enthusiasm. iv Table of Contents Chapter 1 – Introduction......................................................................................................1 1.1 Introduction........................................................................................................1 1.2 Literature Review.............................................................................................10 1.2.1 Environmental Scholars.................................................................12 1.2.1.1 Group One..........................................................................12 1.2.1.2 Group Two.........................................................................18 1.2.2 Scholars of Rabbinics....................................................................23 1.2.2.1 Group One..........................................................................24 1.2.2.2 Group Two.........................................................................24 1.2.2.3 Group Three.......................................................................25 1.2.2.4 Group Four.........................................................................25 1.3 Purpose.............................................................................................................27 1.4 Methodology....................................................................................................29 1.5 Chapter Breakdown.........................................................................................30 1.6 Review and Analysis........................................................................................31 Chapter 2 – Bible and Bible Commentaries......................................................................37 2.1 Introduction......................................................................................................37 2.2 Goals................................................................................................................38 2.3 Deuteronomy 20:19-20....................................................................................43 2.3.1 Context..............................................................................................44 2.3.2 Midrash.............................................................................................44 2.3.3 Post-Midrashic Commentary............................................................50 2.3.4 Synthetic Analysis............................................................................67 2.3.4.1 Between Ecocentrism and Anthropocentrism.......................68 2.4 Genesis 9:5.......................................................................................................78 2.4.1 Context..............................................................................................78 2.4.2 Midrash.............................................................................................79 2.4.3 Post-Midrashic Commentary............................................................79 2.4.4 Synthetic Analysis............................................................................90 2.5 Leviticus 19:27.................................................................................................97 2.5.1 Context..............................................................................................97 2.5.2 Midrash.............................................................................................98 2.5.3 Post-Midrashic Commentary............................................................99 2.5.4 Synthetic Analysis..........................................................................103 2.6 2 Kings 3:19, 25.............................................................................................107 v 2.6.1 Context............................................................................................108 2.6.2 Commentaries.................................................................................108 2.6.3 Synthetic Analysis..........................................................................109 2.7 Conclusions....................................................................................................111 Chapter 3 – Classical Rabbinic Texts..............................................................................121 3.1 Introduction....................................................................................................121 3.2 Trees...............................................................................................................123 3.3 General Bal Tashḥit.......................................................................................130 3.4 Bal Tashḥit DeGufa Adif................................................................................153 3.5 Idol Worship and Foreign Cultural Practices.................................................157 3.6 New Testament..............................................................................................164 3.7 Conclusion.....................................................................................................167 3.7.1 Idol Worship...................................................................................170 3.7.2 New Testament...............................................................................171 3.7.3 Wastefulness and Self-Harm...........................................................173 Chapter 4 – Codes and their Cognates.............................................................................177