Is There Military Keynesianism? An Evaluation of the Case of France Based on Disaggregated Data Julien Malizard Document de travail ART-Dev 2013-04 Novembre 2013 Version 1 Représenter la diversité des formes familiales de la production agricole. Approches théoriques et empiriques Sourisseau Jean-Michel1, Bosc Pierre-Marie2, Fréguin-Gresh Sandrine1, Bélières Jean-François1, Bonnal Philippe1, Le Coq Jean-François1, Anseeuw Ward1, Dury Sandrine2 1 Cirad ES, UMR ART-Dev, 2 Cirad ES, UMR MOISA Résumé Les mutations des agricultures familiales interrogent le monde académique et les politiques. Cette interrogation traverse l’histoire des représentations de l’agriculture depuis un siècle. Les manières de voir ces agricultures ont accompagné leurs transformations. Aujourd’hui, l’agriculture familiale acquiert une légitimité internationale mais elle est questionnée par les évolutions des agricultures aux Nords comme aux Suds. L’approche Sustainable Rural Livelihoods (SRL) permet une appréhension globale du fait agricole comme une composante de systèmes d’activités multi sectoriels et multi situés dont les logiques renvoient à des régulations marchandes et non marchandes. Le poids relatif et la nature des capitaux mobilisés permettent de représenter de manière stylisée six formes d’organisation de l’agriculture familiale en Nouvelle-Calédonie, au Mali, au Viêt-Nam, en Afrique du Sud, en France et au Brésil. Une caractérisation plus générique, qu’esquisse notre proposition de méthode de représentation des agricultures est enfin proposée, qui pose de nouvelles questions méthodologiques. Mots-clés : agricultures familiales, sustainable rural livelihoods, paysans, entreprises, pluriactivités, mobilités, diversité Abstract: The transformation of family-based agricultural structures is compelling the academic and policy environments. The questions being advanced cross the history of agricultural representations since a century. The ways of seeing and representing the different forms of agriculture relate to these transformations. Family farming has acquired an international legitimacy but is presently questioned by agricultural evolutions in developed countries as well as in developing or emerging ones. The Sustainable Rural Livelihoods (SRL) approach allows a global comprehension of the agricultural entity as a constituent of an activity system that has become multi-sectoral and multi-situational, relating to market and non-market regulations. The relative significance and the nature of the mobilized capitals led us to schematically present six organizational forms of family agriculture in New-Caledonia, in Mali, in Viet-Nam, in South Africa, France and Brazil. A more generic characterization that foresees our representation framework proposal poses new methodological challenges. Keywords: Family agriculture/farming, sustainable rural livelihoods, peasants, enterprises, pluriactivity, mobility, diversity. Is There Military Keynesianism? An Evaluation of the Case of France Based on Disaggregated Data Julien Malizard1 1 UMR 5281 ART-Dev Abstract This article explores the effects of military expenditure on aggregate output in France, covering the period 1980-2010, within a Keynesian model. Our empirical results reveal that military spending stimulates output, even if non-military spending exerts higher impact. The originality of our contribution comes from the use of disaggregated data which allows us to characterize composition effects of military spending. We find that public spending in defense equipment stimulates aggregate output, whereas the rest of public military spending has no significant impact. Keywords: military expenditure; aggregate output; cointegration; public capital; fiscal policy Titre Existe-t-il un keynésianisme militaire ? Une évaluation du cas français sur données désagrégées Résumé Cet article examine les effets des dépenses militaires sur la production agrégée en France, sur la période 1980-2010, avec un modèle keynésien. Nos résultats empiriques révèlent que les dépenses militaires stimulent la production agrégée, bien que les dépenses non-militaires exercent un impact plus élevé. Cependant, l’originalité de notre contribution provient de l’utilisation de données désagrégées. En effet, il est possible de caractériser des effets de composition des dépenses militaires : les dépenses d’équipement stimulent la production agrégée alors que les dépenses de fonctionnement n’ont pas d’impact significatif. Mots-clés : Dépenses militaires ; production agrégée ; cointégration ; capital public ; politique budgétaire Pour citer ce document : Malizard, J. 2013. Is There Military Keynesianism? An Evaluation of the Case of France Based on Disaggregated Data. Document de travail ART-Dev 2013-04. Auteur correspondant : [email protected] 1 Introduction France has a specic defense1 policy compared to Western European countries. Indeed, the independence vis-à-vis the US has been erected as a key feature of the French defense policy since the beginning of the 5th Republic. This independence means that France has developed independent nuclear deterrence and independent defense industry com- bined with a high level of defense spending. Besides, its position in NATO is ambiguous: France withdrew the integrated military command in 19662. This policy has been called "French Grandeur" by Fontanel and Hebert (1997). Obviously, these characteristics have economic implications on the level of defense spend- ing. Some gures help to illustrate this point. The average defense burden between 1988 and 2010 (the ratio defense spending to GDP) is equal to 2.8%, according to SIPRI database (Stockholm International Peace Research Institute). Figure 1 plots defense burden of several countries. French defense burden, which is higher than Western Eu- ropean countries, is quite comparable to the UK but slightly lower than the US. Figure 1: Evolution of the defense burden (% of GDP) from 1988 to 2010 Source: SIPRI French annual statistical book also highlights three important areas: industry, employ- ment and exports. The manufacturing share of the armament industry is equal to 8.4% in 2008 and rises since 1998. The Defense Ministry employs 8% of public workforce. The net exports of the armament industry are positive and this is the unique sector with a 1In this paper, we consider the terms "defense" and "military" as synonymous. 2France joins the integrated military command in 2008. 1 positive balance. The second implication of the French defense policy is the high level of military equip- ment in the defense budget. Figure 2 describes the evolution of the share of equipment between 1997 and 2010. From this gure, it appears that only three countries spend more than 20% of their budget on equipment: France, the UK and the USA. Smith (2009, p.106) argues that these countries adopt a "capital-intensive" defense strategy whereas other developed countries follow a "labour-intensive" strategy. Figure 2: Share of equipment in the defense budget from 1997 to 2010 Source: NATO Moreover, the French Defense Ministry is considered as the "rst public investor". Ta- ble 1 reports some gures extracted from Government budget in LOLF format to illus- trate this point: government budget, defense budget, investment budget (called "title 5") and investment initiated by Defense Ministry (mainly explained by the mission "Equipment"). Over the past few years, it appears that defense spending is responsible for 75% of public investment. Note that this contribution is not recent: decentralization, which starts at the beginning of the 1980's, leads the central government to delegate the public investment process to local administrations1, so that defense sector becomes the principal vector of central public investment. French Defense Ministry provides data concerning the use of the budget2. From 1980 to 2010, on average, half of the budget is devoted to personnel or non-equipment budget 1For instance, in 2011, local administrations concentrate more than 75% of French public investment. 2This presentation of the budget follows the "1959 Ordonnance" which denes the objectives and means of defense policy. 2 Table 1: French budget (in billions euros) Year Budget Defense Investment spending Investment from defense 2009 410 40.904 18 10.262 2010 427.4 40.675 14.9 10.077 2011 390 40.810 12.6 9.459 2012 314.4 41.227 12.7 9.327 (mainly wages and fuel). The other half is dedicated to equipment budget (mainly pro- curement of weapons and nuclear deterrence). Figure 3 plots the evolution of these two budgets. From this gure, we notice that non-equipment budget is rather stable while equipment budget is more changing. Figure 3: Composition of the French defense budget in billions of euros Source: French Defense Statistical Yearbook Evaluating the economic consequences of military expenditure requires to take into ac- count these specicities. Such an evaluation is crucial given the economic and strategic contexts. From an economic point of view, France has an important public debt (close to 90% in 20121), which leads to consider a scal consolidation strategy. Consequently, 1Such a threshold has been pointed out by Reinhart and Rogo (2010) as a turning point from which the eect of debt public turns to be negative. Even if this paper has been recently criticized by some scholars, it serves as a basis for policy-makers in the EU. 3 defense budget has suered reduction over the past few years and will be constant in the most favourable scenario in the coming years1. However, France is