Colonial Power in Development: Tracing German Interventions in Population and Reproductive Health in Tanzania A thesis submitted to the University of Manchester for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy in the Faculty of Humanities 2012 Daniel Bendix School of Environment and Development, Faculty of Humanities TABLE OF CONTENTS Figures ................................................................................................................................. 5 Abstract ............................................................................................................................... 6 Declaration .......................................................................................................................... 7 Copyright statement ............................................................................................................ 7 Acknowledgements .............................................................................................................. 8 About the author ................................................................................................................. 9 Acronyms ........................................................................................................................... 10 Transcription conventions for interviews ............................................................................ 11 1 Introduction ............................................................................................... 12 1.1 Research goals, questions, and objectives .................................................... 12 1.2 The significance of this study ........................................................................ 14 1.3 Theoretical approach and outline of the thesis ............................................. 21 2 Conceptual framework .............................................................................. 25 2.1 Power and Development .............................................................................. 25 2.1.1 Discourses ....................................................................................................... 27 2.1.2 Interconnectedness of discourses with the material world............................... 29 2.1.3 Actors and agency ............................................................................................ 32 2.1.4 Dispositif.......................................................................................................... 35 2.1.5 Summary ......................................................................................................... 38 2.2 Colonial power and Development ................................................................. 39 2.2.1 Constructing “colonial difference”.................................................................... 41 2.2.2 Linearity of “development” and imposition of European thinking .................... 44 2.2.3 Continuity of global political and economic inequalities................................... 46 2.2.4 Heterogeneity and challenges .......................................................................... 47 2.2.5 Summary ......................................................................................................... 48 2.3 Development interventions and issues of population and reproductive health ........................................................................................................... 49 2.3.1 Development interventions ............................................................................. 49 2.3.2 Interventions in population and reproductive health in a historical perspective ...................................................................................................... 51 2.4 Conclusions ................................................................................................... 55 3 Methodology and methods ....................................................................... 58 3.1 Introduction .................................................................................................. 58 3.2 Discourse analysis in Development Studies ................................................... 60 3.3 Genealogical dispositif analysis ..................................................................... 63 3.4 Conducting this research .............................................................................. 65 3.4.1 The field........................................................................................................... 66 3.4.2 Archives and publications ................................................................................ 70 3.4.3 Interviews and observations ............................................................................ 74 3.5 Analysing the material .................................................................................. 79 3.6 Conclusions ................................................................................................... 85 2 4 From German colonialism to post-independence Development policy and practice in Tanzania .................................................................. 87 4.1 Introduction .................................................................................................. 87 4.2 German colonialism and the colonisation of “German East Africa” ............... 89 4.3 The emergence of Development intervention in population and reproductive health during colonial rule ....................................................... 93 4.4 Post-independence Tanzanian “development” and German Development aid ........................................................................................ 101 4.5 German Development cooperation and health policy ................................. 106 4.6 Conclusions ................................................................................................. 113 5 Shifting policies and practices on population control and reproductive health ................................................................................. 115 5.1 Introduction ................................................................................................ 115 5.2 Discourses and practices regarding population numbers, fertility, and gender relations .......................................................................................... 117 5.2.1 During German colonial rule .......................................................................... 117 5.2.2 During German Development cooperation in the 21st century ....................... 125 5.3 Justification for intervention and the political economy of population control ........................................................................................................ 133 5.3.1 During German colonial rule .......................................................................... 134 5.3.2 During German Development cooperation in the 21st century ....................... 137 5.4 Conclusions ................................................................................................. 143 6 Childbirth-related interventions: practices, professionalism, and partographs.............................................................................................. 149 6.1 Introduction ................................................................................................ 149 6.2 Assessing and transforming obstetric care .................................................. 152 6.2.1 During German colonial rule .......................................................................... 152 6.2.2 During German Development cooperation in the 21st century ....................... 157 6.2.3 Summary ....................................................................................................... 163 6.3 Planning and thinking ahead ....................................................................... 163 6.3.1 During German colonial rule .......................................................................... 164 6.3.2 During German Development cooperation in the 21st century ....................... 167 6.3.3 Summary ....................................................................................................... 172 6.4 Mind-sets and attitudes .............................................................................. 173 6.4.1 During German colonial rule .......................................................................... 173 6.4.2 During German Development cooperation in the 21st century ....................... 177 6.4.3 Summary ....................................................................................................... 181 6.5 Conclusions ................................................................................................. 182 3 7 Challenging contemporary German Development intervention in Tanzania ................................................................................................... 186 7.1 Introduction ................................................................................................ 186 7.2 Doubts regarding the value of Development work ...................................... 189 7.3 Criticism of German Development cooperation .......................................... 195 7.4 Challenges by Tanzanians ............................................................................ 202 7.5 Conclusions ................................................................................................. 208 8 Conclusion: summary, contributions, and ways forward........................