THE ROOTS OF UNITED STATES FOREIGN POLICY TOWARD SOUTH AFRICA, 1969-1985 A DISSERTATION SUBMITTED TO THE FACULTY OF ATLANTA UNIVERSITY IN PARTIAL FULFILLMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS FOR THE DEGREE OF DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY BY KEMA IROGBE DEPARTMENT OF POLITICAL SCIENCE ATLANTA, GEORGIA DECEMBER 1986 R (1 - Vt_<_ T^| ABSTRACT POLITICAL SCIENCE IROGBE, KEMA B.A., Jackson State University, 1980 M.P.P.A., Jackson State University, 1982 Dissertation Topic: The Roots of United States Foreign Policy Toward South Africa, 1969-1985 Adviser: Dr. Hashim Gibrill Dissertation dated December 1986 The major concern of this study was to examine the United States foreign policy toward South Africa with a view to determining in whose interest the policy is pursued. With this basic theme in mind: (1) we evaluated United States foreign policy toward South Africa from 1969 to 1985 under the administrations of Presidents Nixon, Ford, Carter and Reagan, (2) we critically analyzed the United States economic, political and military-strategic interests in South Africa, and (3) we assessed the impact of public opinion on the United States policy toward South Africa. Widely differing perceptions exist regarding the poli¬ cy of the United States toward South Africa. Some observers argue that United States policy of engagement with South Africa reinforces the conviction of the apartheid regime that its domination of South African 80 percent population is not only viable but necessary. Other observers see the American foreign 1 2 policy toward South Africa as enhancing the "desired" non¬ violent change. Our position is that the United States pol¬ icy toward South Africa serves the interest of the United States multinational corporations in South Africa rather than the American public. In order to substantiate the thesis, we applied a combination of quantitative and qualitative data research techniques in retrieving relevant information regarding the American public opinion and the operations of United States corporations in South Africa. Our findings in the three areas investigated, among other things, revealed that: (1) even though the United States policy toward South Africa under the administrations of Presidents Nixon, Ford, Carter and Reagan has shown some changes in approach, there has been a continuity in its basic principle of engagement with the apartheid regime, (2) the United States government and its multinational corporations' pursuit of economic and strategic interests override the moral and humanitarian concerns for the oppressed in South Africa, and (3) a greater percentage of the American public would like the United States govern¬ ment to take stiffer measures against South Africa. While concluding that the United States foreign poli¬ cy toward South Africa serves the interest of its multi¬ national corporations (class interest) rather than the Ameri¬ can public, we have recommended that there should be active assistance (moral, technical and financial) rendered to the South African national liberation movements by the United States anti-apartheid groups. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS In the course of writing this dissertation, a number of persons offered invaluable assistance. I would like to express my profound gratitude to the members of my dissertation committee: Professors Hashim Gibrill, Hamid Taqi, Nathaniel Jackson, and Larry Noble for their helpful comments and suggestions. I am greatly indebted to Anthony Nzeocha, Sidney Inegbedion and Victor Ugenyi for their encouragement. My thanks to American Friends Service Committee, United Nations Center Against Apartheid, and American Committee on Africa for the relevant materials sent to me. Finally, I am no less grateful to Ms. Ewillie Albertie for the typing of the manuscript and to Mrs. Reta Lacy Bigham for her devotion and sense of professionalism in the typing of the final draft of this dissertation. xi TABLE OF CONTENTS Page ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ii TABLE OF CONTENTS iii LIST OF TABLES v Chapter I. INTRODUCTION 1 Statement of the Problem 1 Theoretical Framework 7 Review of the Literature 33 Methodology 73 Significance of the Study 79 II. U.S. FOREIGN POLICY TOWARD SOUTH AFRICA 81 Background 8 2 Nixon Administration 83 Ford Administration 96 Carter Administration 101 Reagan Administration 110 Summary 119 III. U.S. ECONOMIC, MILITARY AND POLITICAL INVOLVEMENT IN SOUTH AFRICA 121 The U.S. Economic Stake in South Africa.... 123 U.S. Military Assistance to South Africa... 151 The U.S. Political Support of South Africa. 160 Summary 164 IV. THE IMPACT OF PUBLIC OPINION ON U.S. FOREIGN POLICY TOWARD SOUTH AFRICA 165 Public Opinion Through Protests 166 Survey Polls of Public Opinion 202 Public Opinion of the Mass Media: The Washington Post and the New York Times... 250 Summary 262 iii Chapter Page V. CONCLUSIONS, FINDINGS AND RECOMMENDATIONS 26 3 Conclusions 263 Findings 269 Recommendations 270 APPENDICES • 275 BIBLIOGRAPHY 320 IV LIST OF TABLES 2.1 The Number and the Value of Aircraft Sold to South Africa, 1965-1972 92 2.2 C-130 Aircraft/SAFF Support Program 93 3.1 The Twelve Major U.S. Companies in South Africa 124 3.2 Hourly Employment by Work Grade Classifica¬ tion and Race at GM South Africa, October 1972 127 3.3 Mobil's Work Force (Number and Percent of Workers in Each Employment Category, 1972).... 129 3.4 U.S. Import Dependency on South Africa 132 3.5 South African Reserves and Production of Essential Minerals 133 3.6 U.S. Investment in South Africa Compared to the Rest of Africa After Soweto Uprisings (1976, 1977) 136 3.7 U.S. Income from Investments in South Africa Compared to the Rest of Africa After Soweto Uprisings (1976, 1977) 137 3.8 Military Expenditure of South Africa, 1957- 1977 155 4.1 Do You Think That the United States Should or Should Not Do Something to Try to Get the White South African Government to Change Its Racial Policies? 211 4.2 How Closely Followed Situation in South Africa 220 4.3 Sympathies in South Africa 223 4.4 Reagan Administration's Handling of Situation in South Africa 226 4.5 Can South African Blacks Vote? 229 v LIST OF TABLES 4.6 What Proportion is Black? 232 4.7 Reagan's Handling of Situation in South Africa 235 4.8 How Closely Followed Situation in South Africa 238 4.9 Reagan's Handling of Situation in South Africa (Based on Aware Group) 241 4.10 U.S. Pressure on S.A. Government (Based on Aware Group) 244 4.11 Americans' Sympathies (Based on Aware Group) 247 4.12 What is the Expressed Public Opinion in the Editorials, Columns, and Letters Sections of the Washington Post During the Administra¬ tion of President Richard Nixon (January 1971-August 1974) with Regard to Isolation of South Africa? 253 4.13 What is the Expressed Public Opinion in the Editorials, Columns and Letters Section of the Washington Post During the Administra¬ tion of President Gerald Ford (August 1974- January 1977) with Regard to Isolation of South Africa? 254 4.14 What is the Expressed Public Opinion in the Editorials, Columns and Letters Section of the Washington Post During the Administra¬ tion of President Jimmy Carter (January 1977- January 1981) with Regard to Isolation of South Africa? 255 4.15 What is the Expressed Public Opinion in the Editorials, Columns and Letters Section of the Washington Post During the Administra¬ tion of President Ronald Reagan (January 1981-December 1985) with Regard to Isolation of South Africa? 256 vi LIST OF TABLES 4.16 What is the Expressed Public Opinion in the Editorials, Columns and Letters Section of the New York Times During the Administra¬ tion of President Richard Nixon (January 1969-August 1974) with Regard to Isolation of South Africa? 257 4.17 What is the Expressed Public Opinion in the Editorials, Columns and Letters Section of the New York Times During the Administra¬ tion of President Gerald Ford (August 1974- January 1977) with Regard to Isolation of South Africa? 258 4.18 What is the Expressed Public Opinion in the Editorials, Columns and Letters Section of the New York Times During the Administra- tion of President Jimmy Carter (January 1977-January 1981) with Regard to Isolation of South Africa? 259 4.19 What is the Expressed Public Opinion in the Editorials, Columns and Letters Section of the New York Times During the Administra¬ tion of President Ronald Reagan (January 1981-December 1985) with Regard to Isola¬ tion of South Africa? 260 4.20 A Comparison of Expressed Public Opinion in the Washington Post and the New York Times with Regard to Isolation of South Africa 261 vii CHAPTER I INTRODUCTION The purpose of this research is to carry out a study of the United States foreign policy toward South Africa with a view to determining in whose interest the policy is pur¬ sued. With this underlying theme in mind, our basic objec¬ tives are three-fold: (1) to evaluate U.S. foreign policy toward South Africa between 1969-1985 under the administra¬ tions of Presidents Nixon, Ford, Carter, and Reagan, (2) to analyze U.S. economic, political, and military-strategic interests in South Africa, and (3) to assess the impact of public opinion on U.S. policy toward South Africa. Statement of the Problem We begin with the racial and class struggle in South Africa. The Union of South Africa rules on the basis of the doctrine of "apartheid," which literally means separateness, but which, in fact, is the political, economic, and social domination of the black majority by a white minority. Under apartheid, the freedom of movement and the political socio¬ economic rights of non-whites are sharply curtailed. Most of the land, including the major mineral areas, is set aside for the white minority and the black majority are set apart 1 2 on reserves.1 The overwhelming majority of blacks belong to the working class.