The London School of Economics and Political Science Risk, Resilience and Responsibilisation Gendered Participation and Empowerment in Informal Settlements of Metro Cebu, the Philippines Jordana Ramalho A thesis submitted to the Department of Geography & Environment of the London School of Economics for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy, London, February 2019. Declaration I certify that the thesis I have presented for examination for the MPhil/PhD degree of the London School of Economics and Political Science is solely my own work other than where I have clearly indicated that it is the work of others (in which case the extent of any work carried out jointly by me and any other person is clearly identified in it). The copyright of this thesis rests with the author. Quotation from it is permitted, provided that full acknowledgement is made. This thesis may not be reproduced without my prior written consent. I warrant that this authorisation does not, to the best of my belief, infringe the rights of any third party. I declare that my thesis consists of 97,161 words. Sections of this thesis have been reproduced in the following articles, which were completed during the course of this study. Ramalho, J. (2019) ‘Empowerment in the era of resilience building: Gendered participation in community-based (disaster) risk management in the Philippines’, International Development and Planning Review, 41(2), pp. 129- 48. Ramalho, J. (2019) ‘Worlding aspirations and resilient futures: Framings of risk and contemporary city-making in Metro Cebu, the Philippines’, Asia Pacific Viewpoint 60(1), pp. 24-36. 2 Abstract The Philippines is one of the most disaster-affected countries in the world and considered especially vulnerable to the adverse impacts of climate change. As the economic, social and environmental consequences of these phenomena become more pronounced across the archipelago, disaster risk reduction and management (DRRM) and climate change adaptation have unsurprisingly gained more attention in national and local policies and development agendas. Within this terrain, community-based DRRM (CBDRRM) has emerged as a core orthodoxy informing intervention, particularly in the context of low- income informal settlements which are among the most exposed and least able to protect themselves and recover from such events. In Metro Cebu, calls for creating a more ‘sustainable’ and ‘resilient’ city are also placing urban poor communities in an increasingly precarious position, with those living in areas classed as ‘danger zones’ simultaneously facing intensified pressures of displacement in the name of risk management. Amidst this context of multiple and overlapping forms of risk and insecurity, community organising among informal settlers has become a critical mechanism for building local capacities and resisting different socio-political and environmental threats. Largely mobilised and driven by women, these grassroots entities, often in the shape of homeowner associations, are fundamental to collective contestations of policies and practices that adversely or unfairly affect the urban poor of Cebu, while also serving as strategic sites for advancing claims on public resources and local risk management activities. This thesis interrogates the gendered politics of risk and community organising among informal settlers in Metro Cebu. Drawing on the perspectives and experiences of women and men living in areas classed as danger zones, I argue that encounters with risk (and disaster) constitute an ‘everyday’ rather than ‘exceptional’ reality for informal settlers, and that the siloed focus on large-scale catastrophic events obscures these gendered realities and therein limits the efficacy of CBDRRM initiatives. Relatedly, I contend that the language of ‘disasters’ and ‘climate change’ being endorsed and propagated by the Philippine state depoliticises discussions of risk by concealing the socio-political and structural drivers of vulnerability and deflecting attention away from the power configurations and actors complicit in the production of risk. In fact, my analysis of how DRRM features within broader urban development processes in the metropole showcases how ‘disaster resilience’ and ‘pro-poor development’ are being mobilised to serve elite commercial interests and legitimise the removal of slums. 3 Lastly, I consider the political engagement of informal settlers within this landscape through a focus on homeowner associations which I identify as critical to risk management in urban poor communities. I argue that grassroots ‘resilience-building’ and CBDRRM are decidedly gendered in practice, and reveal complex dynamics whereby participation in these activities is reinforcing gendered inequalities and power differentials while simultaneously facilitating positive personal transformations among female members in particular. The findings of this study reinforce the importance of understanding the socio- spatial manifestations of gender roles, power and agency within DRRM, ‘resilience-building’ and broader urban development processes. They also contribute to advancing broader urban geography and political ecology considerations of how gender and (disaster) risk are implicated in urban governance and city-making processes. 4 Acknowledgements There are so many people whose kindness, mentorship, generosity and encouragement has been invaluable to me personally, and fundamental in making this research possible. Though I am not able to name every individual who has inspired and supported me over the past four years, there are some people to whom I am especially grateful, and who I would like to acknowledge here. First and foremost, I would like to thank FORGE for their interest in my research, and for connecting me to their network of homeowner associations. Ruth Restauro, Vidal Auxilio, Renil Bandiez Oliva, Wilbert Sumagang Dimol, and Ruben Bachiller, thank you for your patience and support throughout my fieldwork, and for making me feel so welcome at FORGE. To the women and men in the communities who welcomed me into their homes, and generously shared their time and stories with me, thank you. In particular, I would like to thank Tata, Gina, Ate Geni, Carol, Menchu, Juanillia, Roger and Marifel for their unending hospitality, patience, time and support. Your contributions to this research have been invaluable, and I will be forever grateful to you. Regina Yoma, my interpreter and partner in crime, thank you for your stamina, patience and friendship throughout it all. I really could not have done this without you. Kaira and Aloy Cañete, thank you for welcoming me into A2D, for the many insightful conversations, and for always being there to offer a helping hand when I needed it. I would also like to thank Rhodora Bucoy, Leny Godinez Ocasiones and staff at the Women’s Resource Centre of the Visayas for their friendship and encouragement. Tony Pet Juanico (HUDO), Laura Villanueva (PCUP) and staff from the Cebu City and Mandaue City DRRMO, thank you for taking the time to share the ins and outs of your work with me. I am also grateful to everyone at the Provincial DRRMO and especially to Baltz Tribunalo, for your hospitality and numerous invitations to join you and your team in activities and meetings. These experiences have been invaluable in helping me to contextualise my observations in the city with a broader understanding of DRRM efforts in the province. In Manila, Darlene Gutierrez at University of the Philippines Diliman and JP Dalupang at Ateneo de Manila University, thank you for your encouragement from the beginning and for making Manila a place I look forward to visiting! In London, a massive thank you to all of my friends at LSE who have shared this journey with me, and kept me sane and smiling in the process! Laura Antona, Paroj Banerjee, Muna Dajani, Meredith Whitten, Yi Jin, Jeanne Firth, Kate Dawson, Carwyn Morris, Carl 5 Truedsson, Mara Nogueira, Harry Pettit, David Brenner and many others - thank you! I would also like to thank Austin Zeiderman, Megan Ryburn, Claire Mercer and Hyun Bang Shin for their support and feedback in departmental seminars and writing groups. To my supervisors Sylvia Chant and Gareth A. Jones, I am immensely grateful to you both for reading through my entire thesis - Sylvia, in your case, the reading has probably added up to several theses! - and for your incredibly helpful feedback and encouragement over the past four and a half years. Sylvia, I cannot even begin to put into words the impact that your mentorship and support has had on me personally and professionally. You are an absolute inspiration and I feel so incredibly lucky to have had you at my side through it all. Ben Dwyer, thank you for always offering a listening ear when I needed to talk through various conundrums, for your insightful inputs at various stages of my fieldwork, and for all your help with the photo editing. Leisa Thomas, Sherry Thakur and Addila Khan, your friendship and support has made everything easier – you guys are the best. Lastly and most of all, I would like to thank my family. My soulmate, confidant and eternal partner Claire, my magical, adventurous, crocodile- and unicorn-loving daughter Raeya, Mom, Dad, Graham and Auntie Carole, thank you for your unending patience, encouragement, love and support and for always believing in me. It is to you that I dedicate this thesis. This research was supported by the Economic and Social Research Council, Postgraduate Award (ES/J500070/1). 6 List of Acronyms ALERT Alaska Emergency