F¡I ta. >- d-ro íi To kitl or not to kill: Competitiono aggression, and videogameso in adolescents Alexander Ask (B.Ec., B.A.(Hons)) Thesis submitted for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy, University of Adelaid er 1999 ll Acknowledgments Thank you to my supervisors for being extretnely patient and for providing excellent feedback during each stage ofthis project. The fact that neither had specific expertise in the media studies field made their task more difficult. You have inspired me:- Dr Martha Augoustinos and Professor Tony Winefield. I would also like to thank my family who continued to provide love and support throughout my candidatr:re. Thank you also to my close friends (particularly Niki Vincent and Paul 'Rav' Cafa¡ella) who helped me through the drudgery periods. I must also thank Yormg Media Aushalia þarticularly Ms. Ba¡bara Biggins & Ms. Toni Jupe) who gave me an r¡nlimited supply of information, literature, and resources, on media issues. Finally, thank you Grant Brindal (a school teacher, par *cellence) who pror"ided stong support dr:ring the data collection stage. He taught me that there a¡e important lessons in life that cannot be found in text books. ,årijiló.ili Table of contenu iii Table of Contents PAGE TABLE OF'CONTENTS m LIST Of,'TABLES IX CHAPTER 1: COMPETITION IS LIIIIKED IVTIH AGGRESSION I 1.I OVERVIEW I 1.2 TYSONSINKSTEETH 2 1.3 STRUCTURE OFTHIS TTIESIS 4 1.4 CoNCEPTUALISING THE COMPETITION.AGGRESSION LINK 6 1.5 SUMMARY I 0 CHAPTER 2: DEFIMTIONS. CONCEIILS.AND CODLSIRUCTS 11 2.1 INTRoDUCTION 11 2.2 CoopERATIoN, coMpETITIoN, AND coNFLIcr t2 2.3 ANGER, HosrILITy, AND AccRESSIoN l8 .KILL 2.4 VIDEOGAME PLAY AS AGGRESSIVE BEHAVIOUN: THB RATIO' 26 2.5 SUMMARY nNp CONCI.USIONS 30 CHAPTER 3: LITERATURE ON Tm COMPETffiON-AGGRESSION LI¡IK 33 3.1 lNrnopucrroN 33 3.2 METHoDoLoGY 34 3.2.I CTTnruAFORENTRY 34 3.2.2 SPnnCH PROCESS AND RESULTS 35 3.2.3 CTTeRIA FOR ANALYSING THE LITERATURE 37 3.3 RTvMw OF THE LITERATURE ON THE COMPETITION-AGGRESSION LINK 39 iv Table of contenß 3.3.I LnBoRAToRY-BASED STI-,DIES 39 3.3.2 T¡vuoR,S CoMPETITIVE REACTIoN TIME PRoCEDT,RE 59 Inüoduction 59 Personality, Individual, and Gender, Differances æ Situational factors 86 Methods for reducing competitive aggression t02 Summary and conclusions 111 3.3.3 NON-LABoRAToRY STUDIES tt4 3.3.4 SUMIT¡ARY oF THE FINDINGS 133 3.4 CoNcr.usroNs 138 cHAPTER 4: THEORTES oF TEE coMPETrrroN-AGGRESSToN LIITTK 141 4.1 lNrnopucrroN l4l 4.2 ANpenSoN's MoDEL oF AGGRESSIoN 142 4.3 Pnruways PoTENTIATED By Covrpnnrrvs SlrunnoNs 144 4.4 WuIcu THEoRY Is THE BEST EXPLANATIoN? 1s0 4.5 CoNcrusroNs 152 CHAPTER 5: MALE AIIID FEMALE ADOLESCENT vrDEoGaÙru pl,ty tsg 5.1 OvBnv¡ew 153 5.2 Sruov 1: Coup¡rITIoN AND Coop¡nlrroN ScHEMAs (A quesrroNNArRE sruov) 155 5.2.1 I¡¡rnoDucrroN 155 5.2.2 MerøoDoLocY t57 Participants. t57 Materials. t57 Procedure. 158 5.2.3 R¡sulrsl58 Sample Cha¡acteristics. 158 Competition, Cooperation, and Aggression. 159 5.2.4 DrscussroN 160 5.3 Srupv 2: Ktvt-R¡rtos DuRrNc CotrtpnrtlvE AND CoopERATIve Slrunlorqs 163 5.3.1 INrnoDUcrroN 163 5.3.2 MenroDolocy 165 Power Analysis. 165 Participants. 165 Materials. 165 Procedure. rc7 Scoring Kill Ratios. 16g Data Analysis. ., ", .L i. 169 5.3.3 ResULrs .:..,:.ryir,rts.,l69 Sample Characteristics. .a;;¡i::i::.t169 Videogame Experience. ,:r t¡:!r::r-:rll70 -,;i Kill Ratios. | ;..: i.171 Reliability Analysis. i ,.,¡.t.T,:,í.;.172 The Effrcacy of Treatrnent. : : (.i:rr 173 VideogamePerceptions. : r . 174 5.3.4 DrscussroN 174 Table ofcontents v 5.4 STUDY 3: DOT.¡TEY KONG COTTNTRY AS A SALIENT VIDEOGAME t76 5.4.I INTRODUCTION 176 5.4.2 MersoDoLocY t76 Participants. 176 Materials. 177 Procedure. 178 Scoring Kill Ratios. 179 Data Analysis. t79 5.4.3 RESULTS t79 Sample Characteristics. t79 Videogame Experience. 180 Kill R¿tios. 181 Reliability Anaþsis. t82 The Effrcacy of Treatment. t82 Videogame Percçtions. 183 5.4.4 DrscussroN 184 5.5 STuoy4: AR¡P¡NTEDMEASURESDESIGN 186 5.5.1 INrnoDUcrIoN 186 5.5.2 MErHoDoLocY 187 Participants. 187 Materials. 187 Procedure. 187 Scoring Kill R¿tios. 188 Data Analysis. 188 5.5.3 RESULTS 189 Sample Characteristics. 189 Videogame Experience. 189 Kill Ratios. 191 Reliability Analysis. 192 The Efficacy of Treatment. t92 Videogame Perceptions. 193 5.5.4 DrscussroN t94 5.6 SUTr¡Tr,T¡RY AND DISCUSSION 194 5.7 CONCLUSIONS 199 CHAPTER 6: ECOLOGICAL COMPETITION 201 6.1 Ovenvr¡w 20t 6.2 STupy 5: CoTT,Tp¡RATIVE ANALYSIS OF GENERAL ADOLESCENT SAMPLE AND MoRrnl Kovsnr GRoup ON ScHEMAS 203 6.2.I INTRoDUCTIoN 203 6.2.2 ME"rHoDoLocY 204 Farticipants. 204 Materials. 2M Procedure. 204 6.2.3 RESULTS 205 Sample Characteristic s. 205 Competition, Cooperation, and Aggression. 207 6.2.4 DrscussroN 209 vi Tableofcontenß 6.3 Srupy 6: MoRTAL KoÞrsA,r 3 TouRN¡,T"TENT FoR PRJZES 2tL 6.3.1 INrnoDUcrroN 2tt 6.3.2 MerHoDoLocY 2t2 Participants. 2t2 Recruitment. 2t2 Mortal Kombat 3. 2t3 Procedure. 2t5 Kill Ratios. 2t8 6.3.3 Resuns 2t9 6.3.4 D¡scussroN 220 6.4 Srupy 7: MoRTAL KoÀasnr ToI.]RNAMENT Iù/ITHoUT PR]zEs 222 6.4.1 I¡¡rnoDucrroN 222 6.4.2 MerldloDol.ocY 223 Participants. 223 Recruitnent. 223 Procedure. 224 Kill Ratios. 224 6.4.3 REsu,rs 224 6.4.4 DrscussroN 225 6.5 Srupy 8: Tue "CHALLENcE" (coMpETITIoN wITHourANnuonxcn) 227 6.5.1 INrnoDUcrroN 227 6.5.2 MErHoDoLocY 229 Participants. 229 Recruiünent. )'ro Materials. 229 Procedure. 230 Kill Ratios. 232 6.5.3 RESULTS 232 Kill Ratios. 232 Positive Affect, Negative Affect, & Angry Feelings. 233 6.5.4 DrscussroN 23s 6.6 Srupy 9: VnI.p¿,noN oF THE MoRTAL KoMBAT KILL RATIo 239 6.6.1 INrnooucrroN 239 6.6.2 MerHoDoLocY 241 Participants & Snrvey. 24t Teacher Ratings. 242 Kill Ratios. 244 6.6.3 Rrsulrs 24 6.6.4 DISCUSSIoN 245 6.7 Surr¡unRY AND Drscusslo¡¡ 246 6.8 Coxcr.usroNs 2s0 7.1 Sutrrunny 253 7.2 CONCI,USIoNS 259 7.3 R¡COTT,TMENDATIONS 260 7.3.I GeNEnnI R¡comIENDATIoNS 260 Tableofcontents vü 7.3.2 SpEcrFrc DoMAIN: Vlpeoc¡,tues 265 7.4 TysoT{'S EAR BITE REVISITED 272 viii List offigures List of Figures FIGIJRE I.I: DIncn¡uunTIc CoNCEPTUALISATIoN oF THE CoMPETITIoN. AGGRESSION LINK FOR THE EXPERJMENTAL SITUATION AS AN INTERPLAY OF P¿RSOIV, SETTING, eXD MùDU, FACTORS. 8 FIGURE 2.1: Scununrtc REpRESENTATIoN oF coMpETITrvE AND coopERATrvE .coALS' ,TASKS'. SITUATIoNS ALONG TwoDIMENSIoNS, vlz, AND t2 FIGI.JRE 5.1: MenNI KILL RATIoS (%) FoR MALEs AND FEMALES AcRoss THE coMPETITIVE AND cooPERATIVE GRoI.JPS Ton sluoy 2. t7t FIG{JRE 5.2: MEAN KILL RATIOS (%Ð DI.JRJNG BASELINE AND EXPERIMENTAL PERIODS FoR FoLJR sLJB-cRor.Jps (corurnrruvE MALES AND FEMALES, AND coopERATIVE MALEs nr.lo nnunles). 191 L#of nbles tx List of Tables TABLE 5.1: MEAN (SD) RATING oN DRQ IrEMS (roncnrut, AGGRESSIVE, HURTFUL, DEsrRUcrIVE, ExcITINc, AND PLEASmIT) ron BorH THE coMPETITM AND COOPERATM SITUATIONS, AND ASSOCIATED F. vALUES (on), ron Sruov l. 160 TABLE 5.2: MrnN (SD) vtDEocAME PLAY PER WEEK (vnurns) AcRoss SEVERAL SETTINGS (rnnsoNnL CoMPUTER AND GAMES sYsrEM AT HoME, ARcADE PARLOUR, AND FRIEND'S HOUSE) FOR MALES AND FEMALES IN BOTH THE COMPETITIVE AND COOPERATIVE GROUPS, nr.¡p ¡' VALUES (or), ron SI:DY 2. 170 TABLE 5.3: Mnn¡¡ (SD) ron MALES AND FEMALES IN THE CoMPETITIVE AND coopERATIvE cRoLJps oN ITEMS FRoM rHn VPQ roR Sruov 2. 173 TABLE 5.4: M¡nr.¡ (SD) vIDEocAME PLAY PER \ryEEK (unurus) AcRoss SEVERAL sETTrNcs (rensounl coMPUTER AND GAMEs sYsrEM AT HoME, ARcADE pARLouR, AND FRIEND's Housr) FoR MALES AND FEMALES IN BOTH THE COMPETITIVE AND COOPER.A,TIVE GROUPS, AND F VALUES (or), roR Sruov 3. 180 TABLE 5.5: MEAN (SD) FOR MALES AND FEMALES IN THE COMPETITVE AND coopERATrvE GRoLJps oN VPQ ITEMS FoR SrUDY 3. 183 TABLE 5.6: MEAN (SD) vneocAME PLAY PER wEEK (urNures) AcRoss SEVERAL sElrrNcs (rEnsounl coMPUTER AND cAMES SYSTEM AT HoME, ARcADE PARLOUR, AND FRIEND'S HOUSE) FOR MALES AND FEMALES IN BOTH THE COMPETITIVE AND COOPERATIVE GROUPS, AND F VALUES, ¡oR Sruov 4. 189 TABLE 5.7: MEAN (SD) FOR MALES AND FEMALES IN THE COMPETITIVE AND coopERATrvE cRoLJps oN VPQ ITEMS FoR SrUDY 4. 193 TABLE 6.1: MenN (SD) vIDEocAME pLAy pER ìüEEK (urNtrrns) AcRoss SEVERAL sETTrNcs (nensoNlrt coMpurER AND cAMEs SYSTEM AT HoME, ARcADE pARLouR, AND FRIEND's ttouse) FoR TI{E Gnr.¡¡Rtt AND THE MOnTnI KOMBAT SAMPLES, AND Z VALUES. 206 TABLE 6.2: FREeuENcy (%) or rIME spENT PLAYING EACH VERSIoN oF MoRrnL KoMBAT As rNDrcATno svfiInMoRrnLKouBAT SAMPLE (N=22). 207 TABLE 6.3: MEAN (SD) RATING oN DRQ ITEMS (roncenut, AGGRESSIVE, HURTFUL, DESTRUcTIVE, ExctrlNc, AND u.ensnxr) FoR BorH THE coMpETITIvE AND coopERATIvE SITUATIoNS FoR rgn GeNpR¡L AND MoRTAL Kol¡slr SAMILES, AND wtrHIN AND BETwEeN X wtmnt F vnlues (on). 208 x List of tables TABLE 6.4: KII.I- RATIoS (%) FoR THE TRJAL AND ToURNAMENT FoR IO PARTIcIPANTS DI.JRJNG STUDY 6. 2t9 TABLE6.5: KIT,I. RATIOS (O/O) FOR THE TRIAL AND TOURNAMENT FOR 1I pARTrcrpANTS DURTNG Sruoy 7. ))< ..CHALLENGE'' TABLE 6.6: KIrl- nelIos (%) Ton THE BASELINE AND PERJoDS FoR 2I PARTICIPANTS DURJNc Srupy 8. 233 TABLE 6.7: Mn¡.r.¡ scoRES FoR THREE TIME PERIoDs @nn.rnncTlcE, Posr- pRAcrrcE, nwp Posr-csnLLENcE Æruoo) oN pANAS AND S_ANIGER ScALES Ton 2I PARTIcIPANTS DI.JRING Sluoy 8, AND MEAN RANKs aND 7¿2 VALT.JES.