The Pennsylvania State University The Graduate School College of Education A COMPARATIVE SOCIO-HISTORICAL CONTENT ANALYSIS OF TREATIES AND CURRENT AMERICAN INDIAN EDUCATION LEGISLATION WITH IMPLICATIONS FOR THE STATE OF MICHIGAN A Thesis in Educational Leadership by Martin J. Reinhardt ©2004 Martin J. Reinhardt Submitted in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree of Doctor of Philosophy December, 2004 ii The thesis of Martin J. Reinhardt has been reviewed and approved by the following: John W. Tippeconnic III Professor of Education Thesis Advisor Chair of Committee William L. Boyd Batschelet Chair Professor of Education Susan C. Faircloth Assistant Professor of Education Edgar I. Farmer Professor of Education Nona A. Prestine Professor of Education In Charge of Graduate Programs in Educational Leadership *Signatures are on file in the Graduate School. iii ABSTRACT This study is focused on the relationship between two historical policy era of American Indian education--the Constitutional/Treaty Provisions Era and the Self- Determination/Revitalization Era. The primary purpose of this study is the clarification of what extent treaty educational obligations may be met by current federal K-12 American Indian education legislation. An historical overview of American Indian education policy is provided to inform the subsequent discussion of the results of a content analysis of sixteen treaties entered into between the United States and the Anishinaabe Three Fires Confederacy, and three pieces of federal Indian education legislation-the Indian Education Act (IEA), the Indian Self-Determination & Education Assistance Act (ISDEA), and the Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA). iv TABLE OF CONTENTS List of Figures …………………………………………………………………...... vii Acknowledgements………………………………………………………… .......... viii Chapter 1. Introduction….………………………………………………................ 1 Purpose of the Study……………………………………………………..... 2 Significance of the Study…………………………………………............... 4 Theoretical Framework…………………………………………………...... 4 Conceptual Model………………………………………………………...... 12 Chapter Summary………………..…………………………………............ 15 Chapter 2. Historical Overview and Statistical Abstract…….................................. 16 A Brief Historical Overview of Federal American Indian Education Policy…………………………………………………………………......... 16 American Indian Education in Michigan………………………………….. 45 A Statistical Profile of American Indian Students………………………… 66 National Statistics………………………………………………..... 66 Michigan Statistics………………………………………………… 70 Chapter Summary………………………………………………………..... 71 Chapter 3. Methodology…………………………………………………………… 73 Research Questions, Procedures, and Criteria…………………………...... 73 Limitations……………………………………………………………….... 80 Treaties and Laws Selected……………………………………………….. 83 Socio-Historical Content Analysis………………………………………... 86 Advantages of Socio-Historical Content Analysis………………………... 88 Disadvantages of Socio-Historical Content Analysis……………………... 89 Research Bias……………………………………………………………… 90 Chapter Summary…………………………………………………………. 91 Chapter 4. Content Analysis………………………………………………………. 92 Concerning the Scores for Relationships with Tribes and Treaties……...... 92 Concerning Trust Levels and the Acts……………………………………. 96 Concerning the Sections of the Analysis………………………………….. 96 Treaty 1: Treaty with the Wyandot, Etc., 1817…………………………… 97 Treaty 2: Treaty with the Ottawa, Etc, 1821……………………………… 119 Treaty 3: Treaty with the Chippewa, 1826………………………… .......... 129 Treaty 4: Treaty with the Potawatomi, 1826…………………………........ 139 Treaty 5: Treaty with the Chippewa, Etc., 1827…………………… .......... 143 Treaty 6: Treaty with the Potawatomi, 1828…………………………........ 146 Treaty 7: Treaty with the Chippewa, Etc., 1833…………………… .......... 149 Treaty 8: Treaty with the Ottawa, Etc., 1836………………………........... 154 Treaty 9: Treaty with the Chippewa (Detroit), 1837…………………........ 160 Treaty 10: Treaty with the Chippewa (St. Peters), 1837…………….......... 163 Treaty 11: Treaty with the Chippewa, 1842…………………………......... 166 Treaty 12: Treaty with the Potawatomi Nation, 1846……………… .......... 169 Treaty 14: Treaty with the Chippewa, 1854…………………………......... 173 Treaty 16: Treaty with the Ottawa and Chippewa, 1855……………......... 177 v Treaty 17: Treaty with the Chippewa of Saginaw, Etc., 1855………........ 182 Treaty 23: Treaty with the Chippewa of Saginaw, Swan Creek, and Black River, 1864…………………………………………………..... 185 Chapter Summary……………..………………………………………...... 192 Chapter 5. Discussion…………………………………………………………….. 194 Corrective Findings……………………………………………………..... 194 Research Questions………………………………………………………. 195 Research Question One…………………………………………………... 196 Treaty Monetary Provisions……………………………………… 198 Treaty Non-Monetary Provisions………………………………... 201 Relevance to Michigan Tribes…………………………………… 204 Anishinaabe Tribes Included…………………………………...... 205 Michigan Tribes Included in Treaty…………………………....... 208 Federally Recognized……………………………………. 208 Bay Mills Indian Community…………………..... 208 Grand Traverse Band of Ottawa/Chippewa…....... 208 Gun Lake Band of Pottawatomi Indians……….... 209 Hannahville Indian Community…………………. 209 Huron Potawatomi, Inc………………………….. 209 Keweenaw Bay Indian Community……………... 209 Lac Vieux Desert Band of Lake Superior Chippewa Indians……………………………….. 209 Little River Band of Ottawa Indians……………. 210 Little Traverse Bay Bands of Odawa Indians…… 210 Pokagon Band of Potawatomi Indians…………... 210 Saginaw Chippewa Indian Tribe of Michigan…… 210 Sault Ste. Marie Tribe of Chippewa Indians…….. 210 State Historic…………………………………………….. 211 Burt Lake Band of Ottawa and Chippewa Indians.. 211 Grand River Band of Ottawa Indians…………...... 211 Swan Creek/Black River Confederated Ojibway Tribes of Michigan……………………………….. 211 Research Question Two………………………………………………….. 211 Research Question Three……………………………………………….... 212 Terms Searches ………………………………………………….. 213 Monetary Provisions/Funding Comparison …………………....... 213 Research Question Four………………………………………………….. 216 Research Question Five………………………………………………….. 218 Education as a General Trust…………………………………….. 219 Education as a Limited Trust…………………………………….. 219 Education as an Express Trust………………………………….... 221 Education as an Implicit Trust………………………………….... 224 Chapter Summary………………………………………………………... 232 Chapter 6. Conclusion………………………………………………………….... 233 Socio-Historical Context……………………………………………….... 233 Treaties Included……………………………………………………….... 234 vi Laws Included…………………………………………………………… 235 Canons of Treaty Construction and Trust Criteria………………………. 235 Summary of Research Findings………………………………………..... 236 Michigan Indian Education as a Trust Responsibility…………... 243 Michigan Indian Education as a Tribal Responsibility………….. 245 Michigan Indian Education as a Federal Responsibility……….... 245 Michigan Indian Education as a State Responsibility ………….... 246 Implications for School Policy…………………………………………... 247 Implications for School Practice………………………………………… 248 Recommendations for Further Study……………………………………. 249 Footnotes……………………………………………………………………….... 250 References……………………………………………………………………….. 251 Appendixes………………………………………………………………………. 265 A. American Indian Tribes in Michigan………………………………..... 265 B. Michigan’s Federally Recognized Tribes (Map)…………………....... 266 C. Comstock Agreement………………………………………………… 267 D. A Synopsis of the History of American Indian Education: National… 268 E. A Synopsis of the History of American Indian Education: Michigan… 276 F. Treaty Provisions Table……………………………………………….. 281 G. Search Hit Tables.…………………………………………………….. 288 H. Anishinaabe Tribal Schools U.S.A…………………………………… 318 I. Law Summary Charts………………………………………………….. 319 vii LIST OF FIGURES Figure 1-1. The shared responsibility for American Indian education in Michigan…………………………….. 13 Figure 3-1. Michigan Indian Education Policy Era Timeline…………………..... 81 Figure 4-1. Type of Relationship Between Acts, Tribes, and Treaties…………………………………………..... 96 Figure 4-2. Treaty/Trust Search Summary Table……………………...……........ 98 viii ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS Chi-miigwech (many thanks) to all of those who have dedicated their time and energy toward the study of Indian education. Like the late Robert “Bob” Van Alstine, you have inspired me to walk a path that I believe will help provide a bright future for the Seventh Generation. I want to thank my wife, Tina Moses, and my daughters, Nimiinagos and Biidaaban for putting up with me for the last six years while I completed this study. My grandmother, Joyce Filer-McCoy, has always been there for me during the best and worst of times. My mother, Antoinette Biron, and father Fred Reinhardt Jr., provided a firm foundation for my brother, sister and I to grow and develop. All of my aunts and uncles have taught me many lessons throughout my life, and for this traditional family style of education, I am forever grateful. It is to one uncle in particular, however, that I am indebted to as a family mentor and role model in higher education. Tom Biron has been like a comet blazing through this universe of thought. He earned my doctoral degree long before I ever did. Finally, I want to acknowledge and thank my committee members. I am humbled as I now refer to Dr. John Tippeconnic, III as a colleague. His knowledge and experience in the field of Indian education has provided a basis for many scholars to begin their study. Dr. William Boyd has continually challenged me to think beyond my comfort zone and to consider how Indian education issues relate to other communities and vice versa. Dr. Susan Faircloth has always