UNIVERSITÀ DEGLI STUDI DI MILANO Graduate School in Social and Political Sciences Dipartimento Scienze Sociali e Politiche Corso di Dottorato di ricerca in Sociologia-XXVI ciclo Social Movement Participation and Social Protests in Georgia A THESIS SUBMITTED IN PARTIAL FULFILLMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS OF THE DEGREE OF DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY (PH.D) IN SOCIOLOGY By: Nino Zhghenti Supervisor: Paola Rebughini Abstract There is a long-lasting debate on reasons and causes of social movement participation. Scholars suggest different explanations from the perspective of one or another theory. However, the theoretical and empirical fact is that there is a dearth of sociological literature on systematic, integrated approach covering multiple factors from different levels of movement participation. To address this problem and contribute to the multifactored approach, the objective of this paper is to develop a Model of movement participation, which is based on and derived from the theoretical and empirical analysis. The Model is developed which further is examined in case study of Georgian social protests. In this way the generated and further developed Model is not only analyzed in context of the corresponding literature but also examined in a practical setting. Due to novelty of the study, qualitative approach has been applied. Overall, research proved theoretical and empirical application of the two Models. The first one is a General Model where external and internal factors are given in hierarchy. As for the second Model, it is a continuation of the General Model. Specifically, it focuses on one of the stages of the General Model – framing process. The later is the major focus of the paper. The study is an important contribution to the sociological literature on social movements’ participation. Page 2 of 148 Table of Contents 1. Introduction .....................................................................................................................................................................................4 PART I ......................................................................................................................................................................................................7 2. Model of Movement Participation ........................................................................................................................................7 2.1 Initial Model: Movement Participation Scheme (November Mobilization) ...........................................7 2.2 Literature Review .............................................................................................................................................................. 12 2.2.1 Resource Mobilization ............................................................................................................................................ 15 2.2.2 Political Opportunity ............................................................................................................................................... 20 2.2.3 Cultural Dimension: Frame Theory ................................................................................................................. 26 2.2.4 Multifactored Approach ........................................................................................................................................ 39 2.3 Model of Movement Participation ............................................................................................................................. 43 2.3.1 General model on movement participation ................................................................................................ 43 2.3.3 The Model on Hierarchical Scheme of Frames .......................................................................................... 48 2.4 Revised Model of Movement Participation .......................................................................................................... 54 PART II.................................................................................................................................................................................................. 56 3. Participation in Social Protests in Georgia ................................................................................................................... 56 3.1 Background Information on Social Protests (1995-2003) in Georgia ................................................... 58 3.1.1 Social Protests under the Soviet Rule ............................................................................................................. 58 3.1.2 Independent Georgia: Social, Political and Economic Situation ....................................................... 61 3.1.3 Shevardnadze’s Rule: Daily Life and Social Protests .............................................................................. 64 3.2 Methodology ......................................................................................................................................................................... 71 3.2.1 Size of Social Protests ............................................................................................................................................. 71 3.2.2 Models of Movement Participation.................................................................................................................. 72 3.2.3 Method ............................................................................................................................................................................ 73 3.2.4 Research Bias and its Solution ........................................................................................................................... 76 3.3 Results ..................................................................................................................................................................................... 77 3.3.1 Political System and Triggering Events ......................................................................................................... 77 3.3.2 Objective and Subjective Reasons and Causes........................................................................................... 79 3.3.3 Identified Political Frames and Counter Frames ...................................................................................... 84 3.3.4 Pro-/Against Movement Campaign (Organizers’ Perspective)...................................................... 105 3.3.5 Participation in Social Protests (Participants Perspectives)........................................................... 107 3.3.6 Frame Resonance ................................................................................................................................................... 113 3.4 Reasons and Causes of Small and Large Social Protests in Georgia, 2000-2003 ........................... 121 PART III ............................................................................................................................................................................................. 126 5. Model of Movement Participation: Theoretical and Empirical Application ............................................. 126 6. Conclusion .................................................................................................................................................................................. 133 7. References .................................................................................................................................................................................. 137 Page 3 of 148 1. Introduction There is a long-lasting debate on reasons and causes of social movement participation. Scholars suggest different explanations from the perspective of one or another theory. Proponents of political opportunity paradigm (Tarrow 1998, Meyer 2004, Finkel&Muller 1998) argue that major instigator of social movement emergence is political context and its features. Scholars of resource mobilization theory (McCarthy et al. 2001; Zald&McCarthy, 1979, 1980; Buechler 1999) focus on resources and rational calculations as the key determinants in joining social protests. At the same time the new experiences of protesting demonstrated the narrow focus and biased approach to the issue. This is when the new Models have brought the wave back to the other side of the range. Nowadays, an increasing number of studies not only pay attention to the role of cultural factors in social mobilization but also there are attempts to consider variables from different theories in one conceptual and/or analytical framework. Advocates for cultural factors, specifically proponents of frame theory (Benford 2000, Benford&Snow 2000), while describing the construction of new meanings and ideas clearly ignore context of the mobilization. To add to this, analytical concepts of frame theory at much extant is limited to theoretical analysis (Scheufele 2004). A number of components in the theory are seen problematic when it comes to practical application. On the other hand, political process theory suggests one of the most systematic and consistent approaches where three different components - political opportunities, indigenous organization and cognitive liberation - constitute to one outcome (McAdam et al. 2001, McAdam 1982). However, even among its advocates, one can find strong preferences to the one or the other components, which bring us, back to the same single-paradigm approach.