Faculty of Humanities, Social Science and Education Centre for Peace Studies The Question of Structural Violence on the Saho people of Eritrea, in spite of their important role during the Eritrean Struggle for Independence Romodan Abdellah Esmail Master’s Thesis in Peace and Conflict Transformation: SVF-3901 University of Tromsø, Norway June 2015 Foreword This thesis is written as a completion to the Master of Peace and Conflict Transformation at the University of Tromsø, Norway. The research focuses on structural violence against the Saho people of Eritrea, a cultural minority group. There is very little information about the Saho people in general and about structural violence on the Saho people in particular. Moreover, under the contemporary despotic government of Eritrea, minority voices become unheard and even forbidden. Their suffering as well has become unrecognized. From these perspectives and as a member of the population being studied, the topic was initiated and selected by myself. The main intention of the research is to hopefully give a reader deeper insight and understanding about the overall situation, mainly the question of structural violence, on the Saho people under the current regime of Eritrea. The full scope of the research is the Saho people therefore it has mainly relied on understandings and narrations of the Saho people. As a true revealing task, the research has chosen to link a human rights and justice perspective to the topic, in line with the research field. Since the current situation of the Saho people are products of pre independence historic processes, as a background, pre independence history of the Saho people has been covered. Fieldwork was conducted June and July of 2014. From January to the end of May 2015, I have been occupied in writing. Writing this type of project was my first experience. Thus, it was not without considerable challenges. My knowledge of academic writing was limited. However, all I have gained in the end is valuable and interesting knowledge and experiences. I am extremely thankful to my supervisor Randi Rønning Balsvik, for her valuable insights and directions from the very beginning, which gave me necessary guidance to complete the research. I am very much satisfied with the work I have achieved. The thesis has six chapters. The first deals with a general introduction of the Saho people and their social organization, the background of the study, the research problem, objectives and questions. The second chapter focuses on the methodological approach of the research. The third chapter deals with theories of structural violence and at the end, reflection on the current situation of the Saho people. The fourth chapter highlights on pre independence history of the Saho people, which have two sections: it highlights the historic injustice and discrimination against the Saho people and the historic role of the Saho people, collectively and individually, in the Eritrean struggle for independence. The fifth chapter presents and analysis the obtained data mainly in the field and in related documents. The sixth chapter is about summary and conclusion of the research. I Abstract The thesis focuses on discovering incidents of the structural violence on the Saho of Eritrea under the Eritrean PFDJ government. It is mainly stressed on the government policies, especially language and land and how the policies undermined the democratic rights of the Saho people. At the same time, it attempts to shed light on the subsequent suppressive attitudes of the government and its overall impacts on the Saho people and the consequences. To meet the objectives, the study relied on an in-depth interviewing of the Saho refugees in Ethiopia. Sixteen qualitative interviewing was conducted. The related documents were also used. As a conceptual framework for analysis, the study uses theories of the structural violence. The thesis also referred to the approaches of minority rights endorsed by the international and UN organizations. The research findings are largely qualitative anecdotal evidence in type mainly from the perspectives of the Saho people. According to the findings frustrations are commonly observed among all Saho informants because of the marginalization and government negligence. The Saho see themselves as subordinated and poorly represented in decision making processes in matters that affect their very interest and livelihood. As a result, most of them entirely dissociate themselves from the government. The Saho people's attitude towards the government's language (mother tongue education) and land policy was in general negative. Forcible imposition of mother tongue education and its ineffective role, lack of consultation and participation of the Saho elites in the affairs concerned to them, discriminations involved in land allocation process, negligence of the pastoral Saho and forced government relocation programs are among the discovered incidents of the structural violence. It was also accompanied with further suppression and intimidation. Comparing to their highland neighboring Tigrigna ethnic group, the Saho are the most marginalized society. The long-term effects of government's maltreatment, as the findings indicate, are extreme poverty and unequal survival chances between the Saho and their immediate neighboring highland group. Higher illiteracy, morbidity and unemployment rate is commonly seen among the Saho. Moreover, several Saho families found themselves in a hard position to cope with difficult situation. As a result, migration, family disintegration, intergenerational welfare dependency, humiliation, undermining of their wellbeing and self- esteem were among the impacts. Many were lured by the government to military and others enticed to accept government programs. The Saho people in remote areas are extremely vulnerable and suffering groups in this case. The situation is heading to further worse. As a II consequence of all, finally, the situations transformed to violent conflict between the government and the Saho people displayed obviously since 2008/2009. At the end the study suggests recommendations how to overcome the structural violence against the Saho people in particular and making Eritrea just, egalitarian and an inclusive for every Eritrean citizens in general. Key Words The Saho people, Eritrean government, structural violence, language and land policy, minority rights, marginalization, suppression. III Acknowledgement First and foremost I would like to praise the Almighty Allah for his grace and giving me patience and courage that helped me to complete this study. I am so grateful to the Norwegian government for granting me protection in time of need as well as all needs and opportunities. I would also take this opportunity to express my sincerely gratitude to the University of Tromsø (UIT) especially to the entire members of the department of Peace and Conflict Transformation for all the kind help and assistance from the very beginning to the completion of the study. My special and heartfelt thanks go to my respected supervisor Professor Randi Rønning Balsvik for her critical reading, invaluable guidance and comments that contributed remarkably for the final success of the study. Special thanks also go to Professor Abdulkader Saleh from whose book many of the relevant ideas and examples have been quoted. Another special thanks also to him for his critical suggestions in the chapters one and three that helped the development of the study. I am also deeply thankful to my intimate friend Abdu Osman for his time and invaluable contributions in forwarding constructive suggestions and advice. I am most grateful to innumerable people whose help from the beginning has made this thesis possible. Though impossible to mention all but I am deeply thankful to all informants, members of the Saho opposition movement in Adigrat and Addis ababa and Mrs.Agaredech Jemaneh for her kind cooperation in obtaining visa to Ethiopia for the fieldwork. Thank you very much!!! IV Abbreviations BMA British Military Administration CCPR: The Covenants on Civil on Political Rights ELF: Eritrean Liberation front ELM: Eritrean Liberation Movement EPLF: Eritrean People's Liberation Front EriTV Eritrean Television IPs Indigenous Peoples MFHE Mahber Fiqri Hager Ertra ML Moslem League MTE: Mother Tongue Education PFDJ: People's Front for Democracy and Justice PLF Popular Liberation Front SPDM: Saho People's Democratic Movement TPLF: Tigray People's Liberation Front UNHCR United Nations High Commission for Refugees V Map 1: The Saho of Eritrea NB: There are several Saho villages and people outside the concrete border shown in green color on the map. Source: http://www.allsaho.com/page/5/ VI Table of Contents Foreword ………………………………………………………………………….… I Abstract……………………………………………………………………………… II Acknowledgement………………………………………………………………….. IV Abbreviations…………………………………………………………………….….. V Eritrean Saho map ………………………………………………………………….. VI Chapter One: Introduction …………………………………………………..….1 1. The Saho People and their Social Organization...................................................... 1 2. Background of the study....................................................................................... 2 2.1 Pre-Independence Period .................................................................................3 2.2 Post-Independence Period................................................................................ 5 3. Research Problem .................................................................................................9