TIME ON THE MOUNTAIN: THE OFFICE OF STRATEGIC SERVICES IN AXIS-OCCUPIED GREECE, 1943-1944 A dissertation submitted to Kent State University in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy by Kyriakos Nalmpantis May 2010 Dissertation written by Kyriakos Nalmpantis B.A., Allegheny College, 1990 M.A., Kent State University, 1995 Ph.D., Kent State University, 2010 Approved by S. Victor Papacosma, Ph.D. Chair, Doctoral Dissertation Committee Members, Doctoral Dissertation Committee Mary Ann Heiss, Ph.D. Richard Steigmann-Gall, Ph.D. Andrew Barnes, Ph.D. Mark Colvin, Ph.D. Accepted by Kenneth Bindas, Ph.D. Chair, Department of History Timothy Moerland, Ph.D. Dean, College of Arts and Sciences ii TABLE OF CONTENTS Acknowledgments……………………………………………………………..…iv Note on Translation and Transliteration……………………………………...….xii Glossary of Frequently Used Terms…………………………………………….xiii Introduction…………………………………………………………………….....1 I. Chapter One: The Historical Background…………………………………….…29 II. Chapter Two: Occupation and Resistance………………………………………53 III. Chapter Three: The British and the Greek Resistance, 1942-3............................78 IV. Chapter Four: Axis-Occupied Greece and US Foreign Policy, 1942-3………..109 V. Chapter Five: The OSS in Greece, September 1943-December 1943…………139 VI. Chapter Six: Gerald K. Wines, Deputy Commander of the AMM…………….169 VII. Chapter Seven: Civil War……………………………………………………...204 VII. Chapter Eight: The OSS in the German-Occupied Evros, 1943-4: Part I.........228 IX. Chapter Nine: The OSS in the German-Occupied Evros, 1943-4: Part II….....264 Conclusion……………………………………………………………………...311 Bibliography……………………………………………………………………325 iii Acknowledgments At one point over the last decade or so, I remember reading or hearing somewhere that “a good book is never late.” Clearly, the source was eminently forgettable but I clung to that quote like a drowning man clings to a piece of floating debris. Surely it had to be so. How else could I explain to loved ones, friends, and well-wishers, but most of all to myself, what exactly was taking so long? Dissertations take a long time you understand, you can‟t rush a good thing…but as one year melded in to the next, and the goal of completion receded far into the horizon, all those rationalizations seemed like so much sophistry and I was left only with a yawning, empty doubt and an impending sense of failure. When I began this project a lifetime ago, I thought I was writing a history. Little did I know then (though many who have completed similar projects nod ruefully when I tell them so) how much of a person‟s self-respect gets caught up in something like this, the bitter humility one learns as one contemplates the possibility that there will be no happy ending. I would like to say that it was faith that got me through it but that would be a lie. No, not true – it would be a partial lie. I lost my faith (and reacquired it) too many times to mention. In the end, it was the faith of those closest to me, my family and friends, that kept me afloat, kept my head above water. I‟ve been waiting such a long time to acknowledge each of them and thank them from the deepest recesses of my heart. First, I would like to thank the dear and wonderful friends and loved ones who are no longer with us, though their generosity and magnanimity of spirit will – of this I have iv no doubt – live forever. Dr. John Logue, of the Kent State Department of Political Science, who graciously agreed to sit on my doctoral committee when it appeared that Mark Rubin would be too ill to continue on as my outside reader, though he did not know me at all. His untimely passing in December 2009 was a blow to the entire Kent community. Sadly, Dr. Rubin did not long outlive him and passed away just a few days later. Friend and confidant, scholar and teacher, advisor and surrogate parent, Mark was one of the most decent and intelligent people I have ever met, truly a man for all seasons. Anyone who ever worked with him or got to know him would say no different. We all miss him keenly. I am eternally thankful as well to the late Yiannis Koufidakis, brilliant conversationalist, sensitive teacher, and dearest friend, who arranged my visit to the archives of the Greek Army General Staff and provided me with a wealth of knowledge on 1940s Greece. Yianni mas leipis file mou. My late mother-in-law, Ellen Forster, gifted storyteller and courageous wife and mother, was an inspiration to her entire family. She is sorely missed, though never far from our thoughts. Finally, I remember my late uncle, Constantine Triantis, who fought with the Greek Army in North Africa and then against his own brother in the streets of Athens in December 1944. His reminiscences, as retold by my cousin Manouel after his passing, brought the era to life for me in a very real way. As einai elafri to choma pou tous skepazei. So many scholars and archivists provided succor to one extremely confused doctoral candidate. My sincerest gratitude must first go to Dr. John Iatrides, the preeminent scholar of Greek Civil War studies, whose expertise and guidance were absolutely invaluable. He generously gave of his vast store of wisdom, provided me with v crucial primary documents from his private archives, and even proofread one of my chapters. What I owe him cannot be repaid. At the National Archives in College Park, an intimidating place for a young scholar, Dr. Larry McDonald calmly steered me through the vast welter of material and pointed out fruitful paths of research. I don‟t think I could have negotiated the OSS archives without him. I am grateful as well to the kind and professional staff at the Liddell Hart Centre for Military Archives at King‟s College London who, with good-humored grace, copied a vast amount of material for me on embarrassingly short notice. Largely because most of the essential documents had been published before this topic chose me, I found little at the Army History Directorate of the Greek Army General Staff. But the professionalism and generosity of its personnel impressed me profoundly. Lieutenant General Ioannis Kakoudakis (ret.), who was at the time the director, personally showed me around the facilities and, without any prompting on my part, granted me a warm and informative interview. I was as well completely humbled by the infectious enthusiasm and honest support of Greece‟s former Defense Attaché in Washington D.C., Colonel Ilias Leontaris, who graciously provided me with copies of hard to find Greek books dealing with the OSS that proved to be treasure troves of information. Truly, from my vantage point at least, the Greek military is in the best of hands. I would also like to thank the American Hellenic Institute in Washington D.C., and its able director, Nick Larigakis, for providing me with a forum to share my developing research. Of course, the symposia of the Modern Greek Studies Association have provided me with the best opportunities to refine my topic and also allowed me to vi come into rewarding contact with outstanding scholars from all over the world. I am so deeply thankful to the various editorial staffs of that organization that over the years accepted my paper proposals and allowed me to present at these stimulating conferences. To this day, the only organization to provide me with a grant for this project is the Hellenic University Club of Cleveland. I thank them profusely and hope that this work meets up with their expectations. My heartfelt appreciation also goes out to Dr. Dimitris Retikas of Akron, who opened up his house and his scintillating memories to a complete stranger. For that and more I owe him a debt of gratitude. The Department of History at Edinboro University of Pennsylvania also deserves special thanks for allowing me to teach at that wonderful institution for many years. Though just a graduate student, I was hired as a full-time instructor, and the salary from that time was much needed and appreciated. I am grateful as well to the Kent State College of Arts and Sciences for furnishing the necessary extensions that allowed me to complete this project and graduate and Ms. Sean Howard, the administrative secretary, who answered harried questions with infinite patience and efficiency. Finally, no one organization deserves more thanks than the Department of History at Kent State University which provided me with immense financial support and an education that is, I am sincerely convinced, second to none. Despite many stumbles along the way, my numerous friends at the department never lost faith in me or in my abilities. Though all my professors at Kent State were exceptional educators, I would like to single out Jerome Friedman, friend, mentor, and brilliant scholar. It was a privilege to be his student for a time. Special thanks also go to Ann Heiss, whose vii unstinting support and advice literally saved my graduate career. Ann, I owe you much. Finally, I would also like to thank my dissertation committee members, Richard Steigmann-Gall, Andrew Barnes, and Mark Colvin, who provided me with the helpful criticism that made this study the best that it could be. There are so many friends and loved ones to thank. The Kollias family, Lakis, Mika, Jimmy, and Olga, thank you for giving me shelter from the storm in dark times – my debt to you is absolute. Dr. Jonathan Helmreich, my advisor at Allegheny College who first put me in contact with Dr. Papacosma and remains a close family friend, thank you for being there always.