The teaching and learning of psychological trauma – a moral dilemma Derek Farrell & Charlotte Taylor The Teaching and Learning of Psychological Trauma – A Moral Dilemma DerekIntroduction Farrell and Charlotte Taylor HE GLOBAL BURDEN of psycho- remains hidden, especially in the developing Introduction:logical trauma cannot be overstated. world: unrecognised, undiagnosed, and TBoth natural disasters and wars account therefore untreated. Trauma and traumatic The globalfor much burden of the of global psychological burden of trauma trauma. cannot stress be exact overstated. a human andBoth socio-economic natural disasters toll and wars accountNatural for much disasters of the affect global some burden 250 million of trauma. that Natural is vast disasters in its magnitude affect and some immense 250 million in people each year.peopleThe each World year. BankThe World (2011) Bank estimates (2011) 1.5 billionits consequences people of the(Carriere, world’s 2014). population Figure currently1 live in estimates countries 1.5 afflicted billion people by political of the orworld’s criminal violenceshows four distinctand war. violences It has (Galtungbeen estimated et al., that some 500 millionpopulation people currently worldwide live suffer in fromcountries Post-­‐ Traumatic1971) all Stress of which Disorders; contribute a majority to trauma. is womenThis and afflicted by political or criminal violence article focuses on direct violence. children.andPsycholo war. It hasgical been trauma estimated darkens that some and scars people’sDirect violencelives -­‐ itcomprises is a silent acts intendedepidemic because much 500 millionof that people trauma worldwide remains suffer hidden, from especiallyto harm inhuman the beings. developing To understand world: unrecognized, undiagnosed,Post-Traumatic and therefore Stress Disorders; untreated. a majorityTrauma is andthe traumaticnarratives and stress experiences exact a humanof survivors and socio-­‐ economicwomen toll and that children. is vast in Psychological its magnitude trauma and immenserequires incoming its consequencesface-to-face(Carriere, with the narra 2014).- Figure 1 showsdarkens four distinctand scars violences people’s (Galtung lives – it et is al, a 1971)tives all ofand which experiences contribute of perpetrators to trauma. – This to article focusessilent on epidemic direct violence. because much of that trauma understand one is to understand the other. Intergenerational factors: Epigenetics, Parenting, Normalization Effect, Cycles of violence, Revenge and retribution ‘Hurt People – Hurt People’ Figure 1: UnderstandingFigure Trauma 1: Understanding Psychology: The FourTrauma Violences Psychology: (adapted from ref Carriere,4) 201 The Four Violences (adapted from ref Carriere, 2014). Direct violence comprises acts intended to harm human beings. To understand the narratives and Psychology Teaching Review Vol. 23 No. 1, 2017 63 experiences of survivors requires coming face-­‐to-­‐face with the narratives and experiences of perpetrators – to understand one is to understand the other. To truly understand the phenomenon and often multi-­‐faceted dimension of direct violence is to acknowledge that there is often a pathology to the trauma which in turn requires exploring the cruelty of humans. Gilbert (2015) believes cruelty is the deliberate act of causing suffering citing Goodall (2010) in that although the basic aggressive patterns of chimpanzees are remarkably like that of humans their comprehension of the suffering they inflict on their victims is very different. Chimpanzees can demonstrate empathy but only humans are capable of deliberate cruelty. Cruelty requires advanced cognitive capabilities -­‐ a knowing intention to cause pain is a good example of this, a second is that ofthe ‘Empathic Torturer’ – pointing the gun at the bank manager’s child being more likely to strengthen a stronger desired effect – only humans have these advanced cognitive attributes which can so often be used to devastating impact. In pursuing this argument further women and children are Derek Farrell & Charlotte Taylor To truly understand the phenomenon and surveyed more than 17,000 participants often multi-faceted dimension of direct about Adverse Child Experiences (ACEs). violence is to acknowledge that there is often This research explored the exposure to a pathology to the trauma which in turn childhood maltreatment and family dysfunc- requires exploring the cruelty of humans. tions and its subsequent impact on health Gilbert (2015) believes cruelty is the delib- outcomes. The findings of the ACE Study erate act of causing suffering citing Goodall suggested that adverse childhood experi- (2010) in that although the basic aggressive ences such as neglect, abuse, household patterns of chimpanzees are remarkably like violence and substance abuse were corre- that of humans their comprehension of the lated with major risk factors for the leading suffering they inflict on their victims is very causes of death as well as poor quality of life. different. Chimpanzees can demonstrate Such stress arises from households where empathy but only humans are capable of children are routinely exposed to issues deliberate cruelty. Cruelty requires advanced such as domestic violence or individuals with cognitive capabilities – a knowing intention alcohol and other substance use problems. to cause pain is a good example of this, a It also discovered two other aspects – firstly, second is that of the ‘Empathic Torturer’ ACEs were enormously common within the – pointing the gun at the bank manager’s general population; secondly, that negative child being more likely to strengthen a outcomes are dose-dependent in that the stronger desired effect – only humans have higher the ACE score, the greater the risk these advanced cognitive attributes which of negative outcomes (Felitti et al., 1998; can so often be used to devastating impact. Felitti, 2002., Felitti & Anda, 2010a). Adverse In pursuing this argument further women Childhood Experiences (ACE’s) in Wales and children are victims of all kinds of phys- concluded that exposure to each ACE as ical and sexual abuse on an epidemic scale. follows: Verbal abuse 23 per cent, Parental Even in every day relations, cruelty haunts separation 20 per cent, Domestic violence 16 the lives of many. Taken together – compas- per cent, Mental illness 14 per cent, Alcohol sion needs to start by being honest about the abuse 14 per cent, Drug use 5 per cent, human potential for cruelty (Gilbert, 2015). and Incarceration 5 per cent (Bellis et al., Goldhagen (1996) states that within geno- 2016) – these represent significant numbers cide there are common factors indicating of people. an important distinction between different Given the massive prevalence of trauma, emotions and how these are exploited in the this then raises an important pedagogic ques- pursuit of genocide – groups are either dehu- tion: how do you educate and inform indi- manised (moralised disgust), demonised viduals about psychological trauma without (moralised anger) or both. In March 1942, psychologically traumatising or re-trauma- almost three-quarters of those who perished tising them? As an educator in teaching in the Nazi Holocaust were still alive – some and learning with regard to psychological 11 months later the same proportion were trauma, there are several factors to consider: dead (Bazalgette, 2017). The theme of holo- 1. Any participant audience will contain an causts will be returned to later however it is ACE trauma population; estimated some six million Jews were killed 2. This trauma group may have either direct because of Nazi policies during WWII. or indirect experiences of the psycho- A similarly staggering magnitude of logical trauma under consideration; trauma relates to Adverse Childhood Expe- 3. There is the potential for re-triggering riences. During the late 1990s a seminal individuals by the exposure to often collaborative research between the Centres harrowing and disturbing narratives; for Disease Control and Kaiser Perma- 4. Part of an individual’s coping strategy nente’s Health Appraisal Clinic in San Diego may be to dissociate from the traumatic 64 Psychology Teaching Review Vol. 23 No. 1, 2017 The teaching and learning of psychological trauma – a moral dilemma experience/material – this, in turn, preted by the United Nations as indicative impacts on the teaching and learning of ethnic cleansing. UNICEF has reported experience; ‘appalling’ actions of killing, abduction and 5. Whether the teaching and learning is done sexual violence against women and children. as a ‘detached and theoretical’ exercise or In January 2015, at the invita- as an ‘empathically connected’ one, it has tion of the Free Yezidi Foundation both advantages and disadvantages. (https://www.freeyezidi.com/) a scoping mission was carried out to determine the To expand on this in more detail, let us psychological needs of Yezidi survivors who consider a cogent and current case example. had managed to escape their ISIL jihadist captors. Six in-depth interviews were carried The Yezidi Genocide out with young Yezidi women, each in turn Among the many victims of the advance of recounting harrowing stories. These inter- the Islamic State of Iraq and Levant (ISIL) is views were carried out in two refugee camps the Yezidi population in Kurdistan, Northern for displaced persons hosting Yezidi popula- Iraq. The Yezidi is a historically misunder- tions. Permission was sought, and granted, stood ethnic and religious minority who