Adding fuel to the flame: The Hat Gyi Dam and ethnic conflict in Karen State, Myanmar Despina Hannah Gleitsmann Master thesis in Culture, Environment and Sustainability Centre for Development and Environment UNIVERSITY OF OSLO August 2015 I © Despina H. Gleitsmann 2015 Adding fuel to the flame: The Hat Gyi Dam and ethnic conflict in Karen State, Myanmar Despina Hannah Gleitsmann http://www.duo.uio.no/ Print: Reprosentralen, University of Oslo II Abstract Demand for energy and its associated services in order to meet social and economic development, is on the rise worldwide. Yet, with electrification coverage of approximately 26%, Myanmar still has a long way to go. One of the options considered in this regard is to expand upon Myanmar’s huge hydropower potential. However, whilst Myanmar’s hydropower potential is enormous, the sources are located in ethnic minority and conflict areas. Until now, consultation with local population and ethnic armed groups has been minimal at best, and non-existent on average. Given this lack of consultation in the decision-making process, and the fact that a concrete ceasefire with all ethnic armed groups has yet to be signed, fighting around (potential) dam sites has been frequent, leading to human rights abuses and forced resettlement of people among other things. What is more, these dam projects so far are a result of contracts signed with foreign investors in China and Thailand, meaning that whilst Myanmar itself is in dire need of electricity, the energy gained from the dams will mostly be exported to those investor countries, hence the revenue of these contracts flow back to the central government, not the ethnic states. Thus, this thesis looks into this problem by specifically focusing on the Salween River, and there in particular the Hat Gyi dam in Karen State. The thesis attempts to extrapolate to what extent such dam construction may lead to further escalation of conflict. Throughout the thesis, the themes of ethnicity, participation, and the importance of history will be explored and utilised in order to provide a greater understanding of the subject. The key messages derived from the fieldwork conducted is the stark economic and political push in favour of dams emanating from state governments versus the villagers’ strong connection to nature and the Salween River and lack of say in how the River will be utilised, further marginalising the ethnic minority groups and contributing to conflict. A political ecology framework will be employed, specifically looking at the power relationships between actors involved as well as the degree of local participation in the dam project and the effects of such participation (or lack thereof) on and the on-going conflict. The analysis is based on data collected during fieldwork in Chiang Mai, Yangon and the area around Hpa’an (Karen State) in November-December 2014. III Acknowledgements First and foremost, I would like to extend a huge thank you to everyone at KESAN without whom this thesis would not have been possible. Thank you Jared for starting all of this and putting me in contact with everyone. Saw John for your patience in answering my endless questions. Leon for your cheerful and welcoming attitude. Saw Tha Phoe, for welcoming me in Karen State, driving me around, answering my questions, and performing your amazing songs. Saw Hea Say, for your patience and dedicated help in aiding me to translate my questions during fieldwork. Khant Zaw Aung, for your endless cheeriness and immense hospitality. And all the people in Kawkue and Na Piaw Daw who took the time to meet and talk with me, welcoming me with smiles and openness. You all inspire me immensely and I am forever grateful! A huge thank you to all the new friends I gained during my stay in Yangon and Hpa’an. Thank you for putting up with my stress and lifting my spirits when they needed lifting. Wai Wai, you are one of the most generous people I have met! Sille, our chats and laughs over coffee on the terrace meant more than you know. Rachel, your help and welcoming spirit were greatly appreciated. Min and Sai, for your fun and caring spirits. To my supervisor Tanja, thank you for your support, patience and input throughout this journey. To UiO Energi for generously providing me with a stipend for my fieldwork in Thailand and Myanmar. This gift was unexpected and immensely appreciated. Thank you Mr. Koehler for your insights and comments concerning this thesis. A sincere thank you to all my friends at SUM. You have been my rock here in Oslo and have somehow managed to turn the intense and long hours on the 4th floor into fun and cheerful times. Thank you for the tears and laughter we shared. You all have a special place in my heart. And lastly, to my amazing, supportive family. Words are not enough to express what your love and support has meant throughout all these years. Danke, dass ihr immer für mich da seid, und dass ihr mir in dieser Zeit der Höhen und Tiefen immer zugehört habt. Ihr wisst nicht wie viel es mir bedeutet hat. Θα είμαι πάντα ευγνώμων! IV Table of contents 1 Introduction ............................................................................................................... 1 1.1.1 The many peoples of Myanmar .................................................................. 6 1.2 Objectives and Research Questions ................................................................... 8 1.3 Thesis structure .................................................................................................. 9 2 Analytical Framework ............................................................................................ 11 2.1 Political Ecology .............................................................................................. 12 2.2 Participation in Development ........................................................................... 18 2.3 Ethnicity ........................................................................................................... 20 3 Methodology ........................................................................................................... 22 3.1 Case Study Research ........................................................................................ 22 3.2 Data Collection in the field .............................................................................. 23 3.3 Ethical considerations and my role as a researcher .......................................... 28 3.4 Secondary sources ............................................................................................ 30 3.5 Reflections and Limitations ............................................................................. 31 4 Background ............................................................................................................. 33 4.1 Myanmar – A History ...................................................................................... 34 4.2 The Peace Process and ethnic armed groups .................................................... 39 4.2.1 A Historical Perspective on the Use of Natural Resources in Myanmar .. 43 5 Energy, Development and Dams ............................................................................ 47 5.1 Hydropower Dams: An Overview ................................................................... 49 5.1.1 Benefits and Problems with regards to Dams ........................................... 51 5.2 Dams on the Salween River ............................................................................. 55 5.3 The Hat Gyi Dam ............................................................................................. 58 6 State perspectives: China, Thailand and Myanmar ................................................ 62 6.1 China ................................................................................................................ 62 6.1.1 Reasons for China’s investment in hydropower abroad ........................... 63 6.1.2 Actors involved in the dam industry in China .......................................... 65 6.2 Thailand ............................................................................................................ 66 6.2.1 Thailand’s energy needs ........................................................................... 68 6.2.2 Thailand’s energy provider: Hungry for Myanmar’s electricity .............. 69 6.3 Dams and the government of Myanmar ........................................................... 72 V 6.3.1 The evolution of Hydropower in Myanmar under the military government 73 6.3.2 The current government’s perspectives on dams ...................................... 75 6.3.3 Relevant new laws concerning the environment ....................................... 83 7 Local perspectives and experiences ........................................................................ 86 7.1 Kawkue Village: Presentation and findings ..................................................... 87 7.2 Na Piaw Daw Village, Kalone Island on the Salween ..................................... 90 7.3 Ban Sob Moeng Village in Thailand ................................................................ 92 7.4 The people’s connection to the Salween .......................................................... 95 7.5 Civil Society and ethnic armed groups’ views ................................................. 98 8 The Hat Gyi Dam as conflict multiplier ................................................................ 105 8.1.1 Actors and their power ...........................................................................