A FORGOTTEN WAR WITHIN A WAR: An Examination of Sexual and Gender-Based Violence in the Conflict-Affected Districts of Kitgum and Pader, Northern Uganda by Lahoma Thomas Submitted in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Arts at Dalhousie University Halifax, Nova Scotia July 2008 © Copyright by Lahoma Thomas, 2008 Library and Bibliotheque et 1*1 Archives Canada Archives Canada Published Heritage Direction du Branch Patrimoine de I'edition 395 Wellington Street 395, rue Wellington Ottawa ON K1A0N4 Ottawa ON K1A0N4 Canada Canada Your file Votre reference ISBN: 978-0-494-43559-5 Our file Notre reference ISBN: 978-0-494-43559-5 NOTICE: AVIS: The author has granted a non­ L'auteur a accorde une licence non exclusive exclusive license allowing Library permettant a la Bibliotheque et Archives and Archives Canada to reproduce, Canada de reproduire, publier, archiver, publish, archive, preserve, conserve, sauvegarder, conserver, transmettre au public communicate to the public by par telecommunication ou par Plntemet, prefer, telecommunication or on the Internet, distribuer et vendre des theses partout dans loan, distribute and sell theses le monde, a des fins commerciales ou autres, worldwide, for commercial or non­ sur support microforme, papier, electronique commercial purposes, in microform, et/ou autres formats. paper, electronic and/or any other formats. The author retains copyright L'auteur conserve la propriete du droit d'auteur ownership and moral rights in et des droits moraux qui protege cette these. this thesis. Neither the thesis Ni la these ni des extraits substantiels de nor substantial extracts from it celle-ci ne doivent etre imprimes ou autrement may be printed or otherwise reproduits sans son autorisation. reproduced without the author's permission. In compliance with the Canadian Conformement a la loi canadienne Privacy Act some supporting sur la protection de la vie privee, forms may have been removed quelques formulaires secondaires from this thesis. ont ete enleves de cette these. While these forms may be included Bien que ces formulaires in the document page count, aient inclus dans la pagination, their removal does not represent il n'y aura aucun contenu manquant. any loss of content from the thesis. Canada DALHOUSIE UNIVERSITY To comply with the Canadian Privacy Act the National Library of Canada has requested that the following pages be removed from this copy of the thesis: Preliminary Pages Examiners Signature Page (pii) Dalhousie Library Copyright Agreement (piii) Appendices Copyright Releases (if applicable) Table of Contents ABSTRACT vii LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS USED viii DEDICATION ix ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS x CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION 1 Formulation of the Problem 4 Purpose of the Study 6 Contribution of Knowledge 7 Research Questions 9 Definition of Terms 10 Summary 11 CHAPTER TWO: THEORY 13 Introduction 13 Feminists Perspective on Violence Against Women 13 Gender Relations & Patriarchy 14 Cultural Dimension 16 Militaristic Masculinity 18 Rape as a Method of Male Bonding 20 Male-to-Male Sexual Violence 22 The Political Economy of Rape 23 Summary 25 CHAPTER THREE: SEXUAL VIOLENCE AND THE SPREAD OF HIV/AIDS IN CONFLICT SITUATIONS 26 Introduction 26 The Relationship Between Conflict and Sexually Transmitted Infections 26 Evidence of the Relationship 29 Disagreement on the Relationship 30 The Role of Sexual Violence in Sexually Transmitted Infections 30 The Risk of HIV Transmission During Rape 32 IV HIV/AIDS Prevalence Among Armed Combatants 33 Summary 34 CHAPTER FOUR: CASE STUDY OF UGANDA .. 35 Introduction 35 Post-Independence: Political Transitions 35 Armed Conflict in Northern Uganda 36 Impact of the Conflict 37 Documentation of HIV/AIDS in Uganda 39 Impact of HIV/AIDS on Women 40 Sexual and Gender-Based Violence 41 Patterns of Sexual Assault 43 Summary 44 CHAPTER FIVE: METHODOLGOY & STUDY SETTING 45 Introduction 45 Methodological Framework 45 Rationale for Choosing a Qualitative Method 45 The Influence of Participatory Feminist Methodology 46 Data Collection 47 Study Setting 47 Study Procedures and Process 48 Focus Group Discussion 48 In-Depth Interview 50 Data Analysis Strategy 50 Ethical Considerations 51 Dissemination Plan 53 Limitations of Study 54 Summary 55 CHAPTER SIX: FINDINGS 56 Introduction 56 Methodological Insights Gathered During Interviews.... 56 v Findings of Study 58 Motivations of Rape 59 Increase in Incidences of SGBV Post-Conflict 63 Identified Perpetrators .64 Causes Attributed to Violence 67 Lack of Livelihood Opportunities 67 Changing Gender Roles 69 Pre-Existing Violence in the Culture 73 Inadequate Laws & Policies 76 Communitarian Approach to Addressing SGBV 81 Inadequate Health-Care Services 82 Intentional HIV Infection 85 Summary 88 CHAPTER SEVEN: CONCLUSION 89 Introduction 89 Reflections on the Findings 89 Recommendations 90 Inclusion of SGBV in HIV/AIDS Programmes 90 Improved Criminal Justice System 91 Improvement in the Measurement of SGBV 91 Improved Healthcare System 92 Enforcement of Resolutions and Legislation on SGBV 92 Reintegration 93 Final Remarks 93 BIBLIOGRAPHY 95 VI ABSTRACT It is difficult to imagine a time in human history when a country or region in the world was not engulfed in conflict. Twenty-four hour news channels are now available to remind us that conflict and violence are impacting every corner of the planet. Sexual violence is one of the most common and, yet, unspoken features of war. The twenty-one year conflict in northern Uganda is a prime example. Drawing insights from ethnographic research conducted in the districts of Kitgum and Pader, this thesis examines how sexual and gender-based violence (SGBV) and its health implications is understood and articulated by a range of primary stakeholders, representing the state and civil society, including local governmental authorities, university faculty, and representatives of local and international non-governmental organizations (NGOs) working in the area of women's rights. More concretely, this thesis explores the relationship between conflict and HIV/AIDS; provides insight into how women continue to be subjected to SGBV after the conflict has ended; sheds light on how a community responds to sexual violence in the post-conflict setting; as well as, how families negotiate justice for the victim in the absence of an effective criminal justice system within the IDP camp setting. vii LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS USED The following acronyms are used at various points throughout the thesis. AIDS: Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome ANC: Antenatal clinics ART: Anti-retroviral therapy CBOs: Community based-organization HIV: Human Immunodeficiency Virus IDP: Internally displaced person(s) INGOs: International non-governmental organizations LRA: Lord's Resistance Army NGOs: Non-governmental organizations PEP: Post-exposure prophylaxis SSA: Sub-Saharan Africa SGBV: Sexual and gender-based violence STI: Sexually transmitted infection UNAIDS: The Joint United Nations Programme on HIV/AIDS UNDP: United Nations Development Programme UNHCR: United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees UN-OCHA/IRIN: United Nations Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs> Integrated Regional Information Network VAW: Violence against women WFP: World Food Programme WHO: World Health Organization viii DEDICATION To the steadfast gentle soul in my life, my glorious mother Jennifer Thomas, thank you for never letting me think that there was anything in this life I could not achieve. Truly, there has been no greater joy in my life than being your daughter. To my 'MAMA' who taught me that the strength of the feminine is reflected in everyday acts of resistance. Your struggles and sacrifices have not been in vain. I hope to one day impact the life of my granddaughter in the same way you have defined mine. IX ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS I wish to thank my thesis supervisor, Dr. Rebecca Tiessen, I am enormously grateful for her constant feedback, encouragement, and reminders that this research is, indeed, relevant and I should push through the process. Her proofreading, countless suggestions, and thoughtful comments were invaluable in strengthening my writing. I also wish to thank Dr. Jacqueline Gahagan for being a committee member; our discussions always gave me great insights into my research. It is imperative that I extend my thanks to the staff of KIWEPI, who embraced me with open arms. To Mrs. Gladys Canogura, your vision and efforts to achieve social justice leaves me in awe. Thank you for taking me into your heart. I would also like to give a huge thank you to the staff of the Ugandan Cooperative Alliance. I owe a great deal of thanks to the many people in my life who assisted me in getting through this process. So here goes... The cornerstone of BSAC: Barbara Hinch-Hamilton and Keslyn Adams, thank you for providing me a space in which I could be authentic and free. To the wonderful staff at Avalon, many thanks for reminding me of my clinical roots and assisting me in gaining a better perspective on my academic endeavours. To my friends: JJ, KW, JC, HM and CB I am finally done! To Ben-jah-la, thank you for taking all of my calls in UG! Your kindness, support and love in the face of my tears, frustration and plain moodiness still has me speechless. Last but certainly not least, I would like to thank one of my favourite people in this whole entire world, my 'sister' Stefanie Crispino, thank you for ALWAYS standing with me in the peaks and valleys. Finally, I thank the James Robinson Johnston Chair, Social Sciences and Humanities Research Council and the Students for Development Programme for providing financial support. x 1 CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION Women's bodies have long been used as a battleground for competing ideologies, procurement of resources, ethnic cleansing, and genocide. The appropriation of the female body as a symbol of conquest has held a ubiquitous feature in the history of humankind; however, it is a crime that has long been dismissed as one of the casualties of war. History is replete with accounts of male victors defeating their enemy and abducting 'their women'.