Los que se quedan: Non-migrant Experiences of Emigration, Absence and Diaspora in Contemporary Cuba A thesis submitted to The University of Manchester for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy in the Faculty of Humanities 2013 Patrick O’Shea School of Arts, Languages and Cultures List of Contents Abstract 5 Declaration 6 Acknowledgements 7 Glossary of Terms Specific to Cuban Emigration 8 Introduction 9 Part One 18 Chapter 1 Generating Contemporary Cuban Emigration 19 Introduction 20 Approaching post-1959 Cuban Emigration Across Generations 21 First Generation of post-1959 Cuban Emigration 28 Second Generation of post-1959 Cuban Emigration 35 Third Generation of post-1959 Cuban Emigration 39 Fourth Generation of post-1959 Cuban Emigration 44 Conclusion 49 Chapter 2 Conceptualising Contemporary Cuban Emigration 50 Introduction 50 Discourses of Revolution and Exile 52 Discourses of Emigración and Diaspora 65 Conclusion 77 Chapter 3 Living Contemporary Cuban Emigration from Cuba 79 Introduction 79 Exploring Cuban Emigration through Sociocultural Relationships 81 Mutual Experiences of Absence 88 Biographical Methods for Experiences of Emigration in Cuba 95 Conclusion 108 2 Part Two 112 Chapter 4 First Generation of Non-migrant Cuban Experiences 113 Introduction 113 Helena 114 Helena’s Experience with Emigration 114 Absence in Helena’s Narrative 121 Alba 126 Alba’s Experience with Emigration 126 Absence in Alba’s Narrative 131 Conclusion 136 Chapter 5 Second Generation of Non-migrant Cuban Experiences 139 Introduction 139 Ramón 140 Ramón’s Experience with Emigration 140 Absence in Ramón’s Narrative 148 Emilio 153 Emilio’s Experience with Emigration 153 Absence in Emilio’s Narrative 160 Conclusion 165 Chapter 6 Third Generation of Non-migrant Cuban Experiences 167 Introduction 167 Milagros 168 Milagros’s Experience with Emigration 168 Absence in Milagros’s Narrative 174 Elisa 179 Elisa’s Experience with Emigration 179 Absence in Elisa’s Narrative 188 Conclusion 192 3 Chapter 7 Fourth Generation of Non-migrant Cuban Experiences 195 Introduction 195 Diego 196 Diego’s Experience with Emigration 196 Absence in Diego’s Narrative 204 Edgar 207 Edgar’s Experience with Emigration 207 Absence in Edgar’s Narrative 214 Conclusion 219 Conclusions 222 References 235 Word Count: 79,908 4 Abstract Fundamentally, this thesis explores emigration, exile and diaspora as central experiences of contemporary Cuban society and culture but, crucially, understands the processes of experience as lived mutually and simultaneously by both those who emigrate and those who do not. Through interviews conducted in Cuba, the biographical narratives of those who have not emigrated serve to interrogate some assumptions that characterise the study of Cuba and attempt to account for the complexity of the Cuban cultural encounter with emigration, exile and diaspora since 1959. A generational approach is employed to better understand how the absence of family members, friends, colleagues and compatriots has been experienced over several generations of Cubans living on the island. Intertwined discourses of migration mediate various iterations of national, family and interpersonal relationships through complex and often conflictive emotional and psychological processes of separation and absence over time. The manner in which the absences of those who have left are articulated in the imaginations of those who have stayed can cast a certain degree of illumination upon how exile and emigration have been lived in contemporary Cuba, not exclusively as political or economic experiences, but as nuanced social and cultural experiences of diaspora. 5 Declaration No portion of the work referred to in the thesis has been submitted in support of an application for another degree or qualification of this or any other university or other institute of learning. Copyright Statement i. The author of this thesis (including any appendices and/or schedules to this thesis) owns certain copyright or related rights in it (the “Copyright”) and he has given The University of Manchester certain rights to use such Copyright, including for administrative purposes. ii. Copies of this thesis, either in full or in extracts and whether in hard of electronic copy, may be made only in accordance with the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act of 1988 (as amended) and regulations issued under it or, where appropriate, in accordance with licensing agreements which the University has from time to time. This page must form part of any such copies made. iii. The ownership of certain Copyright, patents, designs, trademarks and other intellectual property (the “Intellectual Property”) and any reproductions of copyright works in the thesis, for example graphs and tables (“Reproductions”), which may be described in this thesis, may not be owned by the author and may be owned by third parties. Such Intellectual Property and Reproductions cannot and must not be made available for use without the prior written permission of the owner(s) of the relevant Intellectual Property and/or Reproductions. iv. Further information on the conditions under which disclosure, publication and commercialisation of this thesis, the Copyright and any Intellectual Property and/or Reproductions described in it may take place is available in the University IP Policy (see http://documents.manchester.ac.uk/Docu.aspx?DocID+487), in any relevant Thesis restriction declarations deposited in the University Library, The University Library’s regulations (see http://www.manchester.ac.uk/library/aboutus/regulations) and in The University’s policy on Presentation of Theses. 6 Acknowledgements Many extraordinary efforts of support have made this research project and PhD thesis possible. I would first like to thank the former School of Languages, Linguistics and Cultures at the University of Manchester who funded this project. I was very fortunate to have such a supportive team of supervisors in Parvathi Kumaraswami and Encarnación Gutiérrez Rodríguez and my advisor Nina Glick Schiller. I am particularly indebted to Par, whose unwavering faith in me and in this project made this thesis come to life and to whom I will be eternally grateful. I also owe special thanks to Andrea O’Reilly Herrera for her personal and intellectual role in getting me to this point. My parents Kevin and Carole O’Shea have been a bottomless well of emotional support throughout both my MA and PhD processes and none of this would have been even remotely possible without their love that has carried me through more than they could possibly imagine. All of my family has been greatly missed and their long-distance energy has been invaluable. In Cuba, I wish to extend my deepest gratitude to each and every person who honoured me by graciously sharing their personal experiences and allowing this project to be realised. Special thanks is owed to Leonel Verdeja Orallo and Elmer González Domínguez for their grace as my hosts in Havana as well as for their indispensable efforts and guidance in helping me navigate the challenges of daily life and fieldwork in Cuba, and to Leonel (senior) for all of his patience with me as a flatmate. Also, I would like to extend thanks to Pedro and his family for always welcoming me with open arms. It would be remiss of me not to thank all of my friends and colleagues in Manchester for the hours of stimulating conversation and asados that never failed to lift my spirits. And to Ainhoa, I am truly grateful for the companionship you gave me over the years of this project. Also, thanks to Diana for convincing me that I was suited to pursue a doctorate and to Tom for all those inspired kitchen conversations. Special thanks go to Viktor, Raúl and Angélica for their various forms of assistance in completing this thesis. 7 Glossary of Terms Specific to Cuban Emigration Balsero: A migrant who leaves Cuba without legal permission on a raft, or other small, usually makeshift, sea craft. Bombo: A visa lottery system that was created as part of the 1994/1995 migration accords between Cuba and the United States and administered by the US government for Cuban citizens. Carta de invitación: A formal letter of invitation required to travel (not emigrate) and used to verify certain economic levels needed to sustain the visitor while travelling to a foreign country, generally written by the person whom the traveller will visit. Destierro: Literally meaning ‘to unearth’, it is a term often used in Spanish as equivalent to exile. El exterior: A term referring to foreign lands; the world outside Cuba. Escoria: Literally meaning ‘scum’, this was a derogatory term used to refer to anti- social elements and associated with Cubans who left during the boatlift at Mariel in 1980. Gusano: A derogatory term used to refer to Cuban migrants or exiles mostly during the 1960s and 1970s with the connotation of being anti-patriotic or ant-revolutionary. Liberación: An authorisation number given by the Cuban health ministry to public health practitioners, such as doctors and nurses, releasing them from their duties before they can emigrate. Mafia anti-cubana: A term often used to refer to the most ardent anti-Castro elements of the Cuban exile communities in the United States, specifically in Miami, that will sometimes include assumptions of involvement in acts of terrorism against Cuba Marielito: A term referring to a migrant who left Cuba during the boatlift at the port of Mariel in 1980. Yuma: Originally used as slang for the United States or for a US citizen, this term has increasingly been used to refer to any foreign country or people from outside Cuba. 8 Introduction I first met Alexis in 2006 at a salsa class that he was teaching in Puebla, Mexico. My interest in the class was based on the rumour that there was a Cuban instructor and hoped that it might help with my fieldwork for a master’s thesis on Cuban migration to Mexico.