SINO-RUSSIAN POLICIES IN THE CENTRE AND PERIPHERY: A COMPARATIVE ANALYSIS Ph.D Thesis Research Scholar SAMRA SARFRAZ KHAN DEPARTMENT OF GENERAL HISTORY UNIVERSITY OF KARACHI 2017 SINO-RUSSIAN POLICIES IN THE CENTRE AND PERIPHERY: A COMPARATIVE ANALYSIS A Dissertation Submitted By SAMRA SARFRAZ KHAN For The Degree of Doctor of Philosophy in General History Research Supervisor PROF. DR. UZMA SHUJAAT DEPARTMENT OF GENERAL HISTORY UNIVERSITY OF KARACHI 2017 TO WHOM IT MAY CONCERN It is certified that this thesis entitled “SINO-RUSSIAN POLICIES IN THE CENTRE AND PERIPHERY: A COMPARATIVE ANALYSIS” submitted to BASR, University of Karachi by Ms Samra Sarfraz Khan, has been completed under my supervision and fulfills all requirements for the award of the degree of Doctor of Philosophy in General History. Prof Dr. Uzma Shujaat Research Supervisor Area Study Centre for Europe University of Karachi (iii) ACKNOWLEDGEMENT First and foremost, I would like to thank Allah Almighty for giving me the courage and determination to go successfully through my PhD thesis. I would like to express my profound appreciation to my supervisor, Prof. Dr. Uzma Shujaat, for being an excellent advisor and friend towards me. Her knowledge, appreciation and guidance provided me with ample opportunities to grow as a researcher. I would also like to thank my colleagues in the Department of History (Gen.) for their encouragement towards achieving my goal. A special word of gratitude is due for Prof. Dr. S.M. Taha for his unprecedented support throughout the period of my research work. His timely help and supervision always saved my day. I would also like to extend a very special thanks to my parents Mrs. and Lieutenant Colonel Raja Sarfraz Khan, family and friends whose prayers helped me to sustain thus far. At the end, I would like to express my most sincere gratitude to my husband, Squadron Leader Omair uddin Baig. Words cannot express the magnitude of having his companionship in a continual cycle of tiring days and sleepless nights that continued through these years of research, and of having his support in times when there was no one else to answer my questions. Samra Sarfraz Khan (iv) Dedicated To My Parents And Husband (v) TABLE OF CONTENTS CERTIFICATE iii ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS iv DEDICATION v LIST OF FIGURES ix LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS xii ABSTRACT (English) xiv ABSTRACT (Urdu) xvii INTRODUCTION 1 Chapter 1: A BRIEF INTRODUCTION TO THE PERIPHERIES OF 28 RUSSIA AND CHINA 1.1 Problems on the Roof: China’s Presence in Tibet 29 1.2 Xinjiang: China’s Muslim Frontier 34 1.3 Problems Across the Strait: China’s History in Taiwan 40 1.4 The Fragrant Harbor: China In Hong Kong 45 1.5 Problems in the Russian Periphery 53 1.6 Chechens Identity & the Ingush Dilemma 59 1.7 Dagestani Fervor 68 1.8 Kabardino-Balkaria 78 Chapter 2: CHINA AND RUSSIA IN THE POST COLD WAR ERA 90 2.1 Chinese Periphery after 1991 90 2.2 The Last Years of British Hong Kong 98 (vi) 2.3 Uyghurs and Hans in the 1990s 104 2.4 Cross-Strait Relations: China and Taiwan During the 1990s 112 2.5 The Russian Periphery (1991-2000) 117 2.6 Russia and Chechnya Since 1991 119 2.6.1 The Second Caucasus War: Russian Invasion of Chechnya 129 (1994-1996) 2.6.2 The Second Chechen War 132 2.7 The Soviet Elite in Dagestan 138 2.7.1 A tale of two brothers: The Rise and Fall of Nadir and 139 Magomed Khachialev 2.8 Events of Insurgency in KBR 145 2.9 The Problems in Ingushetia 152 Chapter 3: WINDS OF CHANGE: THE IMPORTANCE OF SINO- 159 RUSSIAN TIES IN A CHANGING WORLD 3.1 Disturbed Peripheries of Russia and China 159 3.2 The Georgian Dilemma 168 3.3 Russia’s Return in Great Power Politics 175 3.4 The Surprise in Ingushetia and KBR 178 3.5 China’s Reign of Terror 182 3.6 Change of Tides in the Strait 186 3.7 Chains, Pearls and Road: A Chinese Trilogy 191 3.8 Sino-Russian Ties in the Post-9/11 World 199 (vii) Chapter 4: CHINESE AND RUSSIAN COUNTER POLICIES IN THE 212 CONTEXT OF DISTURBED PERIPHERIES 4.1 Chinese Periphery And The New Geo-Political Environment 213 4.2 Russia’s Volatile Frontiers 238 4.2.1 From Ethno-Nationalism to Ethno-Secessionism 248 4.3 Sino-Russian Ties in the New Political Order 268 Chapter 5: THE STATE AND THE GOD: A HISTORY OF RELIGION 272 IN RUSSIA AND CHINA 5.1 Religion in China 272 5.2 Government And Religion: A Reactive Process 282 5.3 State and Religion In Russia 286 5.4 From Lenin to Mao: The Suppression of Religion In Russia 300 And China 5.5 The Religious Characteristic of Ethno-National Conflict In 303 China And Russia 5.6 Aides of Control: Media And Censorship in China And Russia 311 5.7 Remarks on Chinese And Russian Control on Media and 321 Religion Chapter 6: EMERGING DYNAMICS OF SINO-RUSSIAN 323 PARTNERSHIP IN THE PERIPHERY: CHINA IN THE RUSSIAN FAR EAST 6.1 History of the Russian Far East 324 6.2 The Soviet Years And Afterwards 330 6.3 Changing Dynamics of Russian Foreign Policy 335 6.4 A Brief Outlook of the RFE 341 (viii) 6.5 Osvoenie: Russia’s Northern Policy 349 6.6 A Brief History of the North 352 6.7 Chinese Involvement In The RFE 367 6.8 Why Russia needs China 375 CONCLUSION 377 RECOMMENDATIONS 402 BIBLIOGRAPHY 410 (ix) LIST OF FIGURES Figure i Map of Dagestan 11 Figure ii Map of the Caucasus region 12 Figure 1.1 Map showing Xinjiang and its border territories. 34 Figure 1.2 Average annual economic growth of Hong Kong as indicated by 53 number of ships. Figure 1.3 Average annual increase in Hong Kong’s population from 1841 to 53 1895. Figure 1.4 Map of North Caucasus 55 Figure 1.5 Statistical illustration of the number of secular and Islamic 75 schools between 1904 and 1917 Figure 1.6 Russian military expansion in the North Caucasus (18th and 19th 75 centuries) Figure 1.7 Ethnic distribution in Kabardino-Balkaria 79 Figure 2.1 Hong Kong’s GDP Growth by Year 103 Figure 2.2 Private sector Producing units and Employed Persons(by district) 107 in Xinjiang, 2004 Figure 2.3 Map of Chechnya 137 Figure 2.4 Chronology of terrorist events in Russia (1999-2011) 157 Figure 3.1 Map of Russia showing the northwest Caucasus 166 Figure 3.2 China and Taiwan’s Exports 189 Figure 3.3 China and Taiwan’s Imports 190 (x) Figure 3.4 Taiwan’s Investment in China 190 Figure 3.5 Map showing the location of First and Second Island Chain 193 Figure 3.6 String of Pearls 194 Figure 3.7 Sino-Russian trade 205 Figure 3.8 Chinese exports to Russia 207 Figure 3.9 Russian Exports to China 207 Figure 3.10 Map of UGSS of Russia 208 Figure 3.11 Map of Sila Sibiri 208 Figure 3.12 China’s oil imports from Russia and KSA 209 Figure 4.1 Population and average income in Urumqi by ethnicity 218 Figure 4.2 Inter-provincial migration patterns of Han population 219 Figure 4.3 Map showing the Nine Dotted Line and the location of some of 234 the disputed islands in the South China Sea Figure 4.4 Map showing the geographical location of Greater Caucasus. 240 Figure 4.5 Map showing shipment route for BTC pipeline 243 Figure 4.6 Blue Stream gas pipeline and layout for South Stream Gas 244 Pipeline. Figure 4.7 Gas supplies via the Blue Stream gas pipeline 244 Figure 4.8 Terrorist attacks in Russia between 1st January 1992 and 31st 257 December 2011 Figure 4.9 Statistics of the Victims in North Caucasus (2013) 261 Figure 4.10 Statistics of target types in terrorist activities (2013) 262 (xi) Figure 5.1 Social hierarchy under the Mongols 279 Figure 5.2 Religious groups in Russia (1991-2008) 303 Figure 5.3 Top-10 Media Markets 315 Figure 5.4 Top TV Channels Audience Reach, 2012-2013 315 Figure 5.5 Top Weeklies in terms of Audience Reach (All-Russia) 316 Figure 5.6 Structural Change of the Russian Media Market 316 Figure 5.7 Daily and Non-Daily Newspapers Circulation Figures in China 320 Figure 5.8 Top Ten Daily Newspapers as of 2000 321 Figure 6.1 Map of Russia including the Russian Far East 325 Figure 6.2 Map of Russian expansion (1553-1894) 329 Figure 6.3 Far Eastern Republic in 1922 330 Figure 6.4 East Siberian-Pacific Ocean Pipeline 344 Figure 6.5 Map of Russia’s north 351 Figure 6.6 Northeast Passage 359 Figure 6.7 Northern Sea Route 360 Figure 6.8 Sailing distances between Asia and Europe throughthe Nep 363 Figure 6.9 Russia’s key trading partners in Asia ($ billion) 368 Figure 6.10 Share of China, Japan and South Korea in the RFEFD’s Trade 370 Figure 6.11 Chinese Investments in the REF-Transbaikal by Province (2011- 371 2012) In Millions of Dollars Figure 6.12 Strategic Location of Zarubino Port 372 (xii) LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS ETIM East Turkestan Independence Movement XUAR Xinjiang Uyghur Autonomous Region TAR Tibet Autonomous Region RFE Russian Far East PRC People’s Republic of China ROC Republic of China SAR Special Administrative Region CCP Chinese Communist Party USSR Union of Soviet Socialist Republics BLDC Basic Law Drafting Committee FDI Foreign Direct Investment SEF Strait Exchange Foundation ARATS Association for Relations across the Taiwan Strait KBR Kabardino-Balkaria NCCP National Congress of Chechen People RSFSR Russian Soviet Federal Socialist Republic ASSR Autonomous Soviet Socialist Republic AO Autonomous Oblast NCBP National Congress of Balkar People SCO Shanghai Cooperation Organization CNPC China National Petroleum Corporation CIS Commonwealth of Independent States (xiii) OSCE Organization for Security and Cooperation in Europe ETLO East Turkestan Liberation Organization SLOC Sea Lanes of Communication COSCO Chinese Ocean Shipping Company B&R Belt and Road / One Belt, One Road Initiative CRCC China Railway Construction Corporation CSSTA Cross-Strait Service Trade Agreement SCS South China Sea SKFO North Caucasus Federal District SARA State Administration for religious Affairs KMT Kuomintang EEU Eurasian Economic Union RFEFD Russian Far Eastern Federal District NSR Northern Sea Route NEP Northeast Passage (xiv) ABSTRACT The thesis entitled “Sino-Russian Policies in the Centre and Periphery: A Comparative Analysis”, shall focus on different aspects of the peripheries of Russia and China.