The Impact of Migration on Emnambithi Households: A Class and Gender Analysis Khayaat Fakier A dissertation submitted to the Faculty of Humanities and Social Sciences, University of the Witwatersrand, Johannesburg, in fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy Johannesburg, 2009 i Abstract This dissertation is a study of social reproduction in different classes of migrant households in Emnambithi, a town in northern KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa. It traces the history of households in this community under the impact of racialised dispossession and migration, and illustrates how households were stratified into distinct classes. The three classes identified are a semi- professional, educated class, a migratory working class, and the marginalised, a segment of the “bantustan” population who never had the possibility of working in the capitalist economy during apartheid. The research then focuses on the gendered nature of social reproduction in households in the post-apartheid era, when this community continues to be shaped by migration. The research illustrates that class-based advantage and disadvantage are reproduced in post-apartheid South Africa. The dissertation analyses the different ways in which household members – predominantly migrant and resident women – deal with daily provisioning and consumption, education and care of the dependants of migrants in the absence of some members of the household. The study argues that social reproduction varies significantly in different classes of households. The class- based and gendered nature of social reproduction has implications for an understanding of developmental needs in post-apartheid South Africa, and this research opens up ways in which job creation and social policies could lead to class-based redress and gender equity. Keywords: care, class, gender, households, marginalised, migration, racialised dispossession, social reproduction, work, working class ii Declaration I declare that this dissertation is my own unaided work. It is submitted for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy in the University of the Witwatersrand, Johannesburg. It has not been submitted before for any other degree or examination in any other university. ______________________ Khayaat Fakier _______ day of _______________________, 2009 iii Acknowledgements The four years I have spent on this dissertation is the most recent period in the ten years I have spent on tertiary education. In mid-1999 I joined the Sociology of Work Unit (SWOP) at the University of the Witwatersrand as an administrator. Soon thereafter – in 2000 – I started studying towards an undergraduate degree. Over the last decade I have been fortunate to have the support and encouragement of my colleagues, friends and family. This space is inadequate to acknowledge them fully. SWOP, which is now the Society, Work and Development Institute, continues to provide me with a supportive intellectual space within which to raise and test my ideas, through teaching and research, but also with colleagues who have contributed greatly to my intellectual development. Eddie Webster, Sakhela Buhlungu, Andries Bezuidenhout, Karl von Holdt, Jackie Cock, Anthea Metcalfe, Shameen Govender and Christine Bischoff have all contributed to the development of SWOP as a mentoring space. First, I would like to acknowledge my gratitude and respect for my supervisor, teacher and mentor, Eddie Webster. His unstinting generosity with time, ideas, resources and encouragement is an example for all of us to actively shape the academy with collegiality, passion and respect. Eddie‟s belief that I could juggle my academic endeavours with my other roles was affirming and strengthened my resolve to complete this project successfully. Sakhela Buhlungu played an important role in encouraging me to continue my postgraduate studies at times when my energy and enthusiasm flagged. Andries Bezuidenhout first introduced me to Emnambithi. I am also grateful for his and Karl‟s supportive and critical comments of my work. Shameen Govender was wonderful and patient in making arrangements for my research trips and “holding the fort” while I was away. Jackie Cock deserves special mention for her guidance, the reading and writing we shared, and her support for my project. Through our involvement in SWOP, Anthea Metcalfe and I have become great iv friends and developed a relationship which has provided me with lots of fun and many hours of conversation that cleared my head and soul. I am indebted to many people in Emnambithi. The women and men I interviewed during the course of this research treated me with great patience and hospitality. The generosity with which they allowed my incursions into their time, space and lives made this research possible. I am fortunate to have chosen this specific community for my research. Mam Lizzy and Gugu Malinga, especially, assisted greatly with arranging interviews, translating and introducing me to the many aspects of social life in Emnambithi. Lindiwe Hlatswayo and Tim Canham have been good friends, and we shared many pleasurable hours together. I am also grateful to Mondli Hlatswayo, originally from Emnambithi and now resident in Johannesburg, who has commented on some of my work. In-depth research required resources to free my time and for accommodation, equipment, transport and the money needed to spend long periods of time in Emnambithi. I wish to acknowledge the financial support of the Ford Foundation. Moreover, funding provided by the Foundation ensured the involvement of Michael Burawoy and my Ford Fellows, Hamadziripi Tamukamoyo, Sepetla Molapo and Maria van Driel. Michael spent about a month a year over four years with us. He was invaluable in strengthening my research methodology and techniques and the analysis of my research findings. I am thankful to Tamuka, Sepetla and Maria for the many conversations we had about our work and for their company while we shared the highs and lows of doctoral research. In March 2008, I spent three weeks at an Extended Workshop on Historicising Migrations in St Louis, Senegal. This event for doctoral candidates from the Global South was funded by CODESRIA and SEPHIS, and assisted greatly in refining my research methodology. Adama Ousmanou, Adeyemi Oyeniyi, Alyxandra Gomes, Adnan Razzaq, Bali Bahadur, Dominica Chinguranga, Vanitha Banjan, Luciana Contarino Sparta, Musa Sadock and Pedro Hernandes have through ongoing email conversations shared my journey as a doctoral student. v My parents, Omar and Magdia Fakier, provided amazing support by believing in me, teaching me from a young age to voice my opinion and being available whenever my children and I needed them. To my siblings and friends, I am thankful for their patience with my neglect and absence at many social events. To Ameen and Ilhaam Bardien, my children, I am grateful that they accepted in good spirit the long periods I spent away from home and on writing my dissertation. I thank them also for keeping me grounded and “forcing” me to watch silly movies with them. Finally, I thank my partner, Ganief Bardien, for the space to love, talk, challenge, grow and be with each other. vi Contents Abstract .................................................................................................... II Declaration .............................................................................................. III Acknowledgements ................................................................................ IV List of Tables ........................................................................................... XI List of Figures ........................................................................................ XII List of Abbreviations ............................................................................ XIII Preface: “Moving Away” – Class and Social Reproduction in Migrant Households .......................................................................................... XVI Research Topic and Questions ................................................................................ xvii Intellectual Departure and Rationale of the Dissertation........................................ xviii Methodology and Research Strategy ...................................................................... xxvi Outline of the Chapters .......................................................................................... xxxiii Chapter One: Literature Review and Theoretical Framework ...................................... 1 1.1 Introduction ....................................................................................................... 1 1.2 Studying Class: The Need for an Eclectic Approach ...................................... 2 1.3 An Eclectic Approach to the Study of Class, Social Reproduction and Migration in Post-Apartheid South Africa ........................................................ 7 1.4 Migration, Class and Gender .......................................................................... 11 1.5 Social Reproduction: Migration, Gender and Class Implications ................. 20 1.6 Framework of the Dissertation ....................................................................... 29 1.6.1 Dimensions of class in the sample households ............................................... 30 1.6.2 Social reproduction in different classes of households .................................... 36 1.7 Conclusion .....................................................................................................