Presented by the Texas State Historical Association Cover Image: Tejano Monument on the grounds of the Texas State Capitol, Austin, Texas. Copyright © 2017 by Texas State Historical Association All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, distributed, or transmitted in any form or by any means, including photocopying, recording, or other electronic or mechanical methods, without the prior written permission of the publisher, except in the case of brief quotations embodied in critical reviews and certain other noncommercial uses permitted by copyright law. For permission requests, write to the publisher, addressed “Attention: Permissions,” at the address below. Texas State Historical Association 3001 Lake Austin Blvd. Suite 3.116 Austin, TX 78703 www.tshaonline.org IMAGE USE DISCLAIMER All copyrighted materials included within the Handbook of Texas Online are in accordance with Title 17 U.S.C. Section 107 related to Copyright and “Fair Use” for Non-Profit educational institutions, which permits the Texas State Historical Association (TSHA), to utilize copyrighted materials to further scholarship, education, and inform the public. The TSHA makes every effort to conform to the principles of fair use and to comply with copyright law. For more information go to: http://www.law.cornell.edu/uscode/17/107.shtml If you wish to use copyrighted material from this site for purposes of your own that go beyond fair use, you must obtain permission from the copyright owner. i Contents Editors’ Preface .............................................................. v About TSHA .................................................................. ix I. Tejano ............................................................................ 1 II. Mexican Americans ....................................................... 3 SPANISH TEXAS III. Spanish Missions ..........................................................15 IV. Francisco Xavier Chaves .............................................. 29 V. María Josefa Granados ................................................ 31 VI. Spanish Governor’s Palace .......................................... 34 MILITARY VII. Compañías Volantes .................................................... 39 VIII. Enganchados................................................................ 42 IX. Marcelino Serna ........................................................... 45 X. Victor Hugo Espinoza .................................................. 48 ETHNIC CONFLICT XI. Antonio Gómez Lynching ............................................ 50 XII. Peñascal Raid of 1874 .................................................. 54 XIII. El Paso Race Riot of 1916............................................. 57 XIV. Porvenir Massacre ....................................................... 61 ii ACTIVISM XV. League of United Latin American Citizens .................. 64 XVI. Mexican American Legal Defense & Education Fund..70 XVII. José de la Luz Sáenz .................................................... 75 XVIII. Adela Sloss Vento ........................................................ 79 XIX. Clotilde Pérez García ................................................... 82 XX. Emma Beatrice Tenayuca ............................................ 87 GOVERNMENT AND POLITICS XXI. Maria Elena [Lena] Guerrero ...................................... 93 XXII. Leonel Jabier Castillo .................................................. 97 XXIII. Frank Mariano Tejeda, Jr .......................................... 102 XXIV. Laredo Election Riot (1886) ...................................... 106 EDUCATION XXV. Del Rio ISD v. Salvatierra .......................................... 108 XXVI. Las Escuelas del Centenario ....................................... 111 XXVII. Arcadia Hernández López .......................................... 114 XXVIII. Texas DREAM Act [HB 1403] .................................... 117 ARTS AND LITERATURE XXIX. Gloria Evangelina Anzaldúa ....................................... 119 XXX. Luis Alfonso Jiménez, Jr ........................................... 122 XXXI. Sam Zaragosa Coronado, Jr ...................................... 129 XXXII. Luis Omar Salinas ...................................................... 133 XXXIII. Chicano Mural Movement ......................................... 136 iii RADIO, TELEVISION, AND MUSIC XXXIV. Antonio Rudy [Ham] Guerrero ................................. 139 XXXV. Leonardo [Lalo] García Astol ..................................... 141 XXXVI. María Belen Ortega .................................................... 144 XXXVII. La Villita Dance Hall ................................................... 147 XXXVIII. Ramiro Cortés, Jr. ..................................................... 149 SPORTS XXXIX. Charrería .................................................................... 154 XL. Everardo Carlos “E.C.” Lerma .................................... 157 XLI. Tecolotes de los Dos Laredos ...................................... 161 XLII. Nemo Herrera ............................................................ 165 TEJANOS AND PUBLIC MEMORY XLIII. Tejano Monument ..................................................... 170 XLIV. VOCES Oral History Project ....................................... 174 XLV. San Antonio Missions National Historical Park ........ 177 APPENDIX Handbook of Tejano History Complete Online Table of Contents iv Ditors’ Preface E Texas has a special place in history and in the minds of people throughout the world. Texas also has the distinction of having been a province of colonial Spain, a state in the Republic of Mexico, and an independent country before it became a part of the United States. Once the war between Mexico and the United States ended and Texas joined the American Union, its history followed a distinct course of socio-economic incorporation, modernization, and identification with the American South and Southwest. Tejanos, descendants of the indigenous and colonial inhabitants of Texas, have been an integral part of Texas history as this eBook amply demonstrates. No one would have imagined in 1952, the year that the Handbook of Texas was first published, that the Texas State Historical Association would expand its major reference source on the history of Texas with new entries on Tejanos. Nor would the founders of the Handbook have anticipated the extraordinary and relatively recent growth of Tejano history with notable and award-winning works that contribute to the stature of the field and explain the growing number of entries that grace the pages of the Handbook. We would be remiss if we did not also credit the enlightened and path-breaking spirit among the community-oriented, critically conscious, social justice Mexican American luminaries emerging in the late 1960s. This cause has given impetus and inspiration to what has become an enduring commitment to historical recovery and restoration projects of which the Handbook of Tejano History and this eBook are now a significant part. They meet up with the legacy agenda to extend voice, presence, and power for underrepresented, misrepresented, and disjointed parts of our diverse communities’ histories and stories both within and outside the academy. The Association recognized Tejano history as an emergent and promising field of study worthy of attention during the development of the six-volume New Handbook of Texas, which lasted from 1982 to 1996. In 1988 TSHA leadership secured funding from the Texas Committee for the Humanities to v hire several staff researchers, including Cynthia Orozco, Teresa Palomo Acosta, María-Cristina García, and others. From 1988 to 1996, these writers worked with a number of advisory editors, including Arnoldo de León, Jesús F. de la Teja, Robert S. Weddle, Donald E. Chipman, and Paul D. Lack, to expand the Handbook’s content on Mexican American history. In doing so, the Handbook expanded its claim of representativeness as it grew into the largest and most accessed encyclopedia on Texas history. The Tejano Handbook Project, the Association’s more recent and concerted effort to add to the Mexican American presence in the Handbook, began in 2014 when Drs. Emilio Zamora and Andrés Tijerina proposed the idea and secured the necessary financial support from the board of directors of the Tejano Monument, Inc., and the sponsorship of the Association. The Tejano Handbook Project held two workshops—one at the Association’s 2014 annual meeting in San Antonio and another in June 2014 at the Texas General Land Office in Austin—to encourage new submissions, to ensure that the contributions abide by a well-defined process of writing and production, and to meet the highest standards of excellence for an encyclopedia entry. The process involved solicitations for entries, followed by submissions that Zamora and Tijerina, the co-directors of the project, reviewed and subsequently referred to the Handbook’s editorial staff for fact checking, copy editing, and online posting. Mike Campbell, the Association’s Chief Historian, made the final decision on the entries. By all accounts, the Tejano Handbook Project has been a resounding success. Prominent authors and new researchers, as well as faculty who assigned topics to their undergraduate and graduate students, responded with high- quality entries on historical figures, events, and themes. The overwhelming response made it necessary to extend the project into a second year, to the point that contributors have now exceeded by a hundred percent the