Language, Culture and Ethnicity: A case of Japanese Mixed Heritage Youth by Naoko Takei M.A., University of British Columbia, 2004 B.A, Bukkyo University, 1995 Dissertation Submitted in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree of Doctor of Philosophy in the Languages, Culture and Literatures Program Faculty of Education Naoko Takei 2015 SIMON FRASER UNIVERSITY Summer 2015 Approval Name: Naoko Takei Degree: Doctor of Philosophy (Education) Title: Language, Culture and Ethnicity: A case of Japanese mixed heritage youth. Examining Committee: Chair: Danièle Moore Professor Steve Marshall Senior Supervisor Associate Professor Roumiana Ilieva Supervisor Associate Professor Diane Dagenais Internal/External Examiner Professor Hiroko Noro External Examiner Associate Professor Department of Pacific and Asian Studies University of Victoria Date Defended: July 10, 2015 ii Ethics Statement iii Abstract Japanese reportedly have the highest ratio of interracial couples in Canada, which has led to an increased number of Japanese mixed heritage learners at post secondary institutions. However, in the field of heritage language education there has been limited research that focuses on this segment of the population. In order to address this gap, the study attempted to provide an in-depth understanding of Japanese Mixed Heritage Youth (JMHY) by analyzing their daily language use and senses of ethnicity. Fourteen Japanese mixed heritage youths who possess a beginner’s level of Japanese proficiency (with two exceptions) participated in the study and provided a multi-set of data, including interviews, short essays on language experiences, and photos. The study is framed by Baumann’s (1996) conceptualization of “ethnicity as culture” and JMHY culture is analyzed through the lens of “two cultural discourses” also promoted by Baumann (1999). The study avoids dichotomizing essentialized and non-essentialized views of culture and regards both views as a vital part of the culture-making process. The result of my analysis shows the complexity of the JMHY’s relation to their language use and ethnicity. While the JMHY emphasize their Japanese “halfness”, they acknowledge the coexistence of Japanese halfness with their other “half” in how they understand their ethnicity. With respect to the JMHY’s Japanese ethnicity, their tendency is to reconnect to the past, the rather reified heritage culture, but at the same time they reinterpret Japanese heritage through their daily experiences in their present contexts. JMHY’s daily language use is examined from both an intercultural competence and a multicultural competence perspective. This approach allows an investigation into how the JMHY’s home environment, including their parents, who provide cross cultural situations in daily life, contributes to the JMHY’s speech competence. This study does not yield findings that can be readily transferable to cases of other mixed heritage youths, but it does demonstrate the importance of taking their mixed heritage background into consideration in the study of language and ethnicity. Finally, suggestions for language instructors at post secondary settings and parents of mixed heritage persons are presented along with directions for further research in the field of heritage language education. Keywords: Heritage language; Japanese mixed heritage; language and ethnicity; intercultural competence; multicompetence iv Dedication To my mother who supports me from a distance. To my participants for sharing their life stories. v Acknowledgements My journey in the doctoral program has not been always smooth but fortunately I have never been short of support and encouragement. There are a number of people to whom I am greatly indebted for their generous support. First of all, I would like to express my deepest gratitude to my senior supervisor, Dr. Steve Marshall, whose mentorship and intellectual guidance helped me tremendously in my long journey. I particularly appreciate his faith in me to complete the thesis. I have also received great support from Dr. Roumiana Ilieva. Her thoughtful comments and constructive criticisms positively shaped my thoughts as well as this thesis. I always felt that I have been fortunate to be surrounded by great friends, but I was reminded of this fortune most strongly in this doctoral journey. In particular, I’m thankful to my doctoral program peers, Kathy Neilson, Kelly Burt and Zhihua Zhang, who contributed to my personal and academic growth through their friendship. I am also grateful to Sandra L. Doggett and J. Maurice Travillian who read and helped with editing in the early stages of my thesis writing. Due to the limited space, I cannot possibly list all the individual names of friends who walked through the journey with me, but at least I would like to briefly note that without their friendship, I could not be where I am now. I also would like to express my gratitude to the fourteen participants who shared not only their precious time but also their personal stories with me. They have made my journey enjoyable and rewarding. Finally, I would like to acknowledge the encouragement provided by my mother who has allowed me to pursue my goal outside of Japan. vi Table of Contents Approval ...............................................................................................................ii Ethics Statement ................................................................................................. iii Abstract ...............................................................................................................iv Dedication ........................................................................................................... v Acknowledgements .............................................................................................vi Table of Contents ............................................................................................... vii List of Figures ..................................................................................................... x List of Acronyms .................................................................................................xi Preface ............................................................................................................... xii Chapter 1. Introduction ............................................................................................... 1 1.1. Background ................................................................................................ 1 1.2. Culture of Japanese Mixed Heritage Youth ............................................... 3 1.3. Purpose and Research Questions ............................................................. 5 1.4. Research Approach ................................................................................... 6 1.5. My Personal Profile .................................................................................... 7 1.6. The Terms “Heritage” Language and Mixed “Heritage” ............................. 9 1.7. Japanese Language Education in British Columbia ................................ 11 1.7.1. Japanese Language Education 1900-1960’s in BC ................... 11 1.7.2. Japanese Language Education in BC: 1970’s to Present .......... 13 1.8. Overview of Dissertation Organization ..................................................... 15 Chapter 2. Literature Review .................................................................................... 16 2.1. Purpose ................................................................................................... 16 2.2. Heritage Language and Ethnicity ............................................................. 16 2.2.1. New Ethnicities and Culture of Hybridity .................................... 17 2.2.2. Youth and Popular Culture in the Globalization Era ................... 26 2.3. Culture in the Language Class ................................................................. 29 2.3.1. Intercultural Competence ........................................................... 31 2.3.2. Multicompetence ........................................................................ 35 2.4. Summary .................................................................................................. 38 Chapter 3. Methodology ............................................................................................ 40 3.1. Introduction .............................................................................................. 40 3.2. Qualitative Research: Suitability and Shortfalls ....................................... 41 3.2.1. Ethnography ............................................................................... 43 3.2.2. Rationales for Employing Linguistic Ethnography ...................... 44 3.3. Participants .............................................................................................. 47 3.4. Data Collection ......................................................................................... 49 3.5. Data Analysis ........................................................................................... 56 3.5.1. Process ...................................................................................... 56 3.5.2. The Researcher’s Role in the Study ........................................... 59 3.5.3. Analysis of Interview Data: Knowledge Constructed or Discovered? ............................................................................... 61 vii 3.6. Ethical Considerations ............................................................................