AMERICAN MUSLIM ORGANIZATIONS’ PLATFORM AND STRATEGIES: UNDERSTANDING CHANGES IN INTEREST GROUP IDENTITY by Ayah Ibrahim A Dissertation Submitted to the Graduate Faculty of George Mason University in Partial Fulfillment of The Requirements for the Degree of Doctor of Philosophy Political Science Committee: _______________________________________ Peter Mandaville, Chair _______________________________________ Jennifer N. Victor _______________________________________ Priscilla M. Regan _______________________________________ Ming Wan, Program Director _______________________________________ Mark J. Rozell, Dean Date: __________________________________ Fall Semester 2017 George Mason University Fairfax, VA American Muslim Organizations’ Platform and Strategies: Understanding Changes in Interest Group Identity A Dissertation submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy at George Mason University by Ayah Ibrahim Master of Arts George Mason University, 2010 Bachelor of Arts College of William and Mary, 2007 Director: Peter Mandaville, Professor Schar School of Policy and Government Fall Semester 2017 George Mason University Fairfax, VA Copyright 2017 Ayah Ibrahim All Rights Reserved ii DEDICATION This is dedicated to my loving husband Nader, my wonderful son Laith, and my parents Salma and Hassan. iii ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS I would like to thank the many friends, relatives, and supporters who have made this happen. My loving husband, Nader, supported me. My parents, in-laws, aunts, and cousin Amani helped me with proofreading and babysitting. Drs. Mandaville, Victor, and Regan were of invaluable help. Schar administrators guided me throughout this process. ISNA, MPAC, and CAIR allowed me access to their records and archives. The George Mason University’s provost’s office, the Ali Vural Ak Center for Global Islamic Studies, and the Islamic Scholarship Fund awarded me financial grants that helped support my work. My Schar colleagues, especially Hiromi whose help and support were vital. Finally, thanks go out to the many university libraries in Maine, Vermont, and Virginia for providing clean and quiet places to work. iv TABLE OF CONTENTS Page List of Tables ...................................................................................................................... ix List of Figures ...................................................................................................................... x List of Abbreviations ....................................................................................................... xiii Abstract ............................................................................................................................. xiv Chapter One: Introduction ................................................................................................... 1 Marginalized Minority Communities in a Liberal Democracy ........................................ 1 Research Questions .......................................................................................................... 6 Main Terms Defined ........................................................................................................ 8 Significance ..................................................................................................................... 8 Assumptions and Limitations ........................................................................................ 10 Overview of Chapters .................................................................................................... 11 Chapter Two: Literature Review ....................................................................................... 14 Ethnic Minority Group Literature: A subfield of organizational theory ........................ 16 Organizational Identity Formation ................................................................................. 21 Demand Aggregation ................................................................................................. 22 Niche Theories ........................................................................................................... 24 Multidimensional Approach ....................................................................................... 25 Organizational Identity Shifts ........................................................................................ 29 Literature on American Muslims ................................................................................... 30 Possible Explanatory Factors and Hypotheses .............................................................. 34 Summary ........................................................................................................................ 41 Chapter Three: History of American Muslim Organizations ............................................ 42 Pre-Revolutionary and Antebellum America ................................................................ 42 Late Nineteenth- and Twentieth-Century Immigrant Missionary Groups and Black Muslim Movements ....................................................................................................... 45 Immigrant Muslims in the Mid-Twentieth Century ...................................................... 55 v Immigrant-Founded Communities and Organizations ............................................... 56 The Oldest Existing American Muslim Organization: Muslim Student Association (MSA) ........................................................................................................................ 62 The Largest American Muslim Organization: Islamic Society of North America (ISNA) ........................................................................................................................ 71 Islamic Circle of North America (ICNA) .................................................................. 76 Leading Political Muslim Organization: Muslim Public Affairs Council (MPAC) .. 78 Largest Muslim Civil Rights Organization: Council on American-Islamic Relations (CAIR) ........................................................................................................................ 82 Other American Muslim Organizations formed in the 1980s and 1990s ................... 86 Post-9/11 American Muslim Organizations ............................................................... 99 Summary .................................................................................................................. 113 Chapter Four: Methodology ............................................................................................ 117 Data .............................................................................................................................. 121 Case Selection, Coding, and Variables ........................................................................ 125 Data Coding Schemes and Evidence Reliability of Indirect and Direct Measures .. 126 Research Design .......................................................................................................... 134 Data Analysis and Display of Procedures .................................................................... 139 Hypotheses and Data Explained .................................................................................. 141 Chapter Five: Islamic Society of North America, 1999–2013 ........................................ 148 Platform and Tactics .................................................................................................... 148 Dependent Variables’ Descriptive Statistics ............................................................ 149 Independent Variables’ Descriptive Statistics ......................................................... 157 Independent Variables Explained Longitudinally .................................................... 162 Testing Hypotheses ...................................................................................................... 169 Platform: Scope ........................................................................................................ 171 Platform: Frame ....................................................................................................... 173 Platform: Rhetoric .................................................................................................... 175 Multivariate Logistic Regression Models on Platform Variables ............................ 181 Tactics: Coalition Use and Type .............................................................................. 184 Tactics: Advocacy Type ........................................................................................... 189 Multivariate Logistic Regression Models on Tactics’ Variables ............................. 191 ISNA Results ............................................................................................................... 194 vi Overview .................................................................................................................. 194 Findings .................................................................................................................... 197 Chapter Six: Muslim Public Affairs Council, 1999–2013 .............................................. 207 Platform and Tactics .................................................................................................... 207 Dependent Variables’ Descriptive Statistics ............................................................ 208 Independent Variables’