MODES OF RESISTANCE: COLONIALISM, MARITIME CULTURE AND CONFLICT IN SOUTHERN GOLD COAST, 1860–1932 By Kwaku Nti A DISSERTATION Submitted to Michigan State University in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY African American and African Studies 2011 ABSTRACT MODES OF RESISTANCE: COLONIALISM, MARITIME CULTURE AND CONFLICT IN SOUTHERN GOLD COAST, 1860–1932 By Kwaku Nti Between the period 1860 – 1932 coastal Southern Gold Coast communities, particularly the Fanti, demonstrated that they were willing and able to resist the colonial government in its project of controlling their lives. To this end, they pursued the means and mechanisms readily available to them; and were also quick to take advantage of whatever opportunities that opened up. These communities acted on their own by drawing on ideas from their maritime culture. They also collaborated with the Western- educated elite. Together they openly resisted the colonial administration through demonstrations, discussions with government through delegations, official letters of protest, use of newspaper articles and editorials, and also took advantage of confusion and inaction of colonial officers as the main modes of resistance to colonial rule. Some of the issues on which their resistance centered included entrenchment of British power, weakening of the position of chiefs, colonial government attempt to take over ―waste lands,‖ and controversial 1932 legislative council elections. For instance, communities in this region conceptualized land as a cultural and religious resource, among others, whereas the colonial government saw it a resource the possession of which secured political and economic clout. This situation set the stage for a protracted resistance as colonial militarism was confronted by an equally militant people. Furthermore, the indecision and lack of action on the part of local colonial officers in critical moments portrayed them as taking a stand in support of one group in a dispute. This for instance presented an opportunity for a disgruntled majority to resist colonial government orders. In all of these experiences coastal Southern Gold Coast chiefs and their people organized under indigenous organizations sought and did get help from their Western-educated compatriots to navigate the complex bureaucracy of colonial governance. Yet, even this collaboration had its own challenges. This dissertation, explores the issues and events around which resistance to colonial rule in coastal Southern Gold Coast revolved, as well as the means and mechanisms by which they did so. Copyright © by KWAKU NTI 2011 To: my children, as a call to discipline and hard work; and my teachers for all their instruction v ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS Certainly, by the grace of God, I received so much help from so many people in the production of this work that I cannot thank them well enough. There will be no end to thanking them. I am obliged to them for life. Acknowledging them on these pages is just but one of the ways. To this end, I acknowledge every teacher at whose feet I have sat since I reached school-going age. They nurtured me in the classroom with encouraging words and patience for an often unsure and faltering learner. I might have forgotten one or two, but I still remember many of them. I thank them all. I say a simple thank you to the teachers whose input, supervision, direction, and approval directly led to the production of this dissertation. I owe a great debt of gratitude to my Ph.D. Committee, which was made up of Nwando Achebe, Professor of History, Professor Gordon Stewart, Laura Fair, Associate Professor of History, and Pero G. Dagbovie, Associate Professor of History. I have been encouraged by their individual and collective scholarship. Together, they have given me a challenging model worthy of emulation. I had opportunities to know them as individual scholars, and this helped me to become familiar with their work: the effect was quite an epiphany for me. My committee functioned together as an efficient and encouraging team and thus enhanced my progress. For this and many informal ways of encouragement, I am grateful. I am very much aware that it took great goodwill, commitment, and enormous sacrifice on their part. For this, I will always remember them and be grateful. I thank Dr. Peter Limb for all his help and encouragement. He was always ready to offer help. I should also thank Dr. Gloria Smith, Dr. John McClendon III, Dr. Geneva Smitherman, and Dr. Rita Kiki Edozie for all the help and encouragement vi they gave me. Jane Krause and Dr. Ella Howard gave me so much help with formatting this document. You have no idea how I appreciate you. I also must thank all the people who gave me so much help during my field work and archival research in Ghana. To the many men and women, young and old, who collaborated with me by giving me so much of their time during the interview sessions, I appreciate all their efforts. They reached beyond themselves to draw from their knowledge and memory to give me so much information that, in addition to other sources, shaped this work. Their help did not come without personal stories most of which brought tears to their eyes. I will acknowledge all of them elsewhere in this work. However, it behooves me to mention the following for their particular dedication and commitment: Supi Kobina Minnah, Obaahinmaa Nana Amba Ayiaba, Odomankoma Kyerema Kwamina Prah, Taufik Ebo Labaran, and Kobina Ebo Fynn. I also received help while in the field from the following in various forms and at different times: Ebenezer Otu Walker, Kofi Atta, Ebenezer Krampah Aidoo, Daniel Nkrumah, Godfred Ahianyo, Festus N. A. Owoo, Joseph Nana Kofi Adomako Addae, Eric Kwaku Boakye Frimpong, Emmanuel Kofi Boadi, Anthony Kweku Arthur, Kingsley Obeng Amoako, Dr. Paul Kafui Kosie Kekesie, Dr. Yaw Ayewubo, and Dr. Michael Acquah. I also thank the librarians at the University of Ghana, Legon, particularly at Balme Library and the Institute of African Studies Library. I received considerable help from the librarians at the University of Cape Coast library complex. The archival staff at the National Archives, Kew-Richmond, Great Britain, and the Public Records and Archives Administration Department offices, in Accra and Cape Coast, was very helpful. I particularly thank William Otoo in this regard. In various ways, I received so much encouragement and vii instruction from Professor R. Addo-Fenning, Professor Emmanuel K. Akyeampong, Dr. Kofi Baku, Dr. Irene Odotei, Dr. Akosua Perbi and others. To Alfred Kuranchie, Samuel Kwadjei Rockson, and Ampah, I owe a debt of gratitude for their moral support. The old guards of St. Mary‘s Secondary School, Apowa, Takoradi, namely Victor Atsu Dzikunu, Ahmed Nunoo, James Allou, Christopher Allou, and Kenneth Asare (who was also with me at St. John‘s School) commended and encouraged me. I thank them so much. They have a portion of this honor. I also received so much help and support from my colleagues at Michigan State University. I particularly cite Dr. Assan Sarr, Dr. Harry Nii Koney Odamtten, Dr. Bayyinah Jefferies, Darcia Grant, Bala Saho, Leonard Ndubueze Mbah, and Tracy Robison. I thank them so much for all their help. Dr. Ebenezer Ayesu and Kwame Adum Kyeremeh were quite liberal in their support. My siblings at home in Ghana were encouraging and offered ready and warm help. I thank Elizabeth, Jemimah, and Eric sincerely for all they did. They have been supportive since infancy and especially at this time as I seek a terminal degree. Maa and Daa would have been so proud of you for your support. Finally, I must of necessity thank Bessie and the children, Ed and Nana Pomaa, for their moral support. They have been there for me through it all, in both challenging and happy times in my pursuit of this degree. I am grateful for their patience with me, when I became testy and disagreeable. Bessie is the most excellent woman any man could be lucky enough to have in his life. Ed and Nana Pomaa have continued to make us proud. To all whose help I have been able recognize, as well as those who, for the sake of brevity, I have seemingly failed to acknowledge, I say thank you most sincerely and may the Almighty God bless you. viii TABLE OF CONTENTS INTRODUCTION ...…………………………………………………...…………………1 Socio-historical context ..........................……………..………………………..……..8 Historiography …………………..…………...…………………………….………..10 Theoretical Framework ..………………………………………………….…………24 Preparation and Methodology ..………….…………………………………………..28 Research Activity and Evaluation of Sources ………………….……………………29 Situating Myself in My Work …………………………………….……………..…..36 Chapter Outline ……………………………………………………….………..……37 Conclusion ………………………………………………………………….…….…41 CHAPTER 1 THE SETTING: SETTLEMENT AND NASCENT RESISTANCE ...............................42 Western Education and Official Resistance …..………………………………….….55 The Growth of British Power and Resistance by the Chiefs …………..……………63 Conclusion …………………………………………………………………………..82 CHAPTER 2 EBUSUA AND ASAFO SYSTEMS: GENDER, COMPLEMENTARITY, AND CONFLICT AMONG THE FANTI OF SOUTHERN GOLD COAST ……………..… 85 Ebusua: Women, Blood and Lineage ……………………………………………… 89 Asafo: Men, Spirit, and Power ……………………………………………………... 96 Asafo, Ebusua, Conflict and Resistance …………………………………………...119 Conclusion ………………………………………………………………………....129 CHAPTER 3 ASAFO, CONFLICT AND RESISTANCE: AN OCCUPATIONAL AND ENVIRONMENTAL INTERPRETATION ………………………………………...…130 Affinity with the Sea and the Acquisition of Fishing Skill ………………………...132