ESTABLISHMENT OF THE BIOLOGICAL CONTROL SYSTEM BY BLACK ANT, Dolichoderus thoracicus (Smith) (Hymenoptera: Formicidae) AND MEALYBUG, Cataenococcus hispidus (Morrison) (Homoptera: Pseudococcidae) AGAINST THE COCOA POD BORER, Conopomorpha cramerella (Snellen) (Lepidoptera: Gracillariidae) IN NORTH SUMATERA, INDONESIA AHMAD SALEH UNIVERSITI SAINS MALAYSIA 2011 ESTABLISHMENT OF THE BIOLOGICAL CONTROL SYSTEM BY BLACK ANT, Dolichoderus thoracicus (Smith) (Hymenoptera: Formicidae) AND MEALYBUG, Cataenococcus hispidus (Morrison) (Homoptera: Pseudococcidae) AGAINST THE COCOA POD BORER, Conopomorpha cramerella (Snellen) (Lepidoptera: Gracillariidae) IN NORTH SUMATERA, INDONESIA by AHMAD SALEH Thesis submitted in fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy JULY 2011 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS Praise be to Allah, the most Gracious and the most Merciful, who had blessed me with His Mercy to accomplish this research and completed writing this thesis. Special thank to a wise and generous Prof Abu Hassan Ahmad, my advisor as well as supervisor, who always give provide confidence to me in my hard times, advice to my research progress, discuss and visit to field trials and lastly he has thoroughly read my thesis since the first draft until final. I am grateful that he suggested to PT. Lonsum and ensure that I can continue from Master to PhD programs. Equally important, Prof. Che Salmah Md Rawi, my co-supervisor, who always give suggestions that are important in implementing the experiments, analyzing the research results and in correcting this thesis. I would like to thank Dr. S. Nelson, Director of Research, Bah Lias Research Station and the board of PT.PP London Sumatra Indonesia Tbk for the financial support and permission to pursue my PhD program. I owe my deepest gratitude to the late Datuk Dr. R. A. Syed (Entomology consultant) and Mr. Harold Speldewinde (Planter) who introduced me to Prof Abu Hassan Ahmad for starting the Master program at Universiti Sains Malaysia, Penang in 1997. In addition, my thanks to Dr. H. L Foster (the previous Director of Research) who proposed and supported my postgraduate proposal to the board of Lonsum. I would like to thank Prof Arshad Ali and Dr. Hamady Dieng, who discuss some parts of my thesis and advice. I am grateful to many of my colleagues; General manager, manager and staff of Lonsum cocoa estates, Crop protection staff and statistician to support and help program. Besides that thank for my conductors, Alik Latif, Misno, Yatno, Tetti Nurleni Siregar and M. Ali Nasution who conduct and recording my trials honestly. Lastly I would like to show my deepest gratitude and love to my wife, Sri Benty and my children Shofa Nurhadiasty and Adril Syafri for their moral support and love and understanding. ii TABLE OF CONTENTS ACKNOWLEDGEMENT…………………………………………………………. ii TABLE OF CONTENTS………………………………………………………….. iii LIST OF TABLES…………………………………………………………………. xi LIST OF FIGURES……………………………………………………………….. xiii LIST OF PLATES …………………………………………………………………. xvi LIST OF APPENDICES………………………………………………………… xix LIST OF PUBLICATIONS & SEMINARS ………………………………………. xxi ABSTRAK…………………………………………………………………………. xxii ABSTRACT……………………………………………………………………….. xxiv CHAPTER 1 - GENERAL INTRODUCTION …………………………………. 1 CHAPTER 2 - LITERATURE REVIEW 2.1 History of cocoa cultivation in Indonesia…………………………….…. 4 2.2 History of cocoa pod borer (CPB), Conopomorpha cramerella (Snellen) in Indonesia…………………………………………………… 6 2.3 Biology and ecology of the cocoa pod borer, Conopomorpha cramerella (Snellen) (Lepidoptera: Gracillariidae)………………………………….. 6 2.3.1 Eggs…………………………………………………………. 9 2.3.2 Larvae………………………………………………………. 9 2.3.3 Pupae ……………………………………………………….. 10 2.3.4 Adult……………………………………………………….. 10 2.3.5 Population build-up…………………………………………. 12 iii 2.4 Biology of the black ant, Dolichoderus thoracicus (Smith) (Hymenoptera: Formicidae)…………………………………………….. 12 2.5 Biology of the mealybug, Cataenococcus hispidus (Morrison) (Homoptera: Pseudococcidae)…………………………………………… 17 2.6 Biology and ecology of antagonistic ants for D. thoracicus……………… 19 2.6.1 The weaver ant, Oecophylla smaragdina (Fabricius) (Hymenoptera: Formicidae)………………………………… 20 2.6.2 The long legged ant, Anoplolepis gracilipes (Jerdon) (Hymenoptera: Formicidae)………………………………… 22 2.6.3 The acrobat ant, Crematogaster sp (Smith) (Hymenoptera: Formicidae)………………………………………………….. 25 2.6.4 The white-footed ant, Techonomyrmex sp (Smith) (Hymenoptera: Formicidae)………………………………… 27 2.6.5 Interactive between antagonistic ants with black ant………. 29 2.7 Control methods of C. cramerella (CPB)……………………………….. 29 2.7.1 Chemical control……………………………………………. 29 2.7.2 Cultural methods……………………………………………. 31 2.7.3 Biological method …………………………………………... 33 CHAPTER 3 - STUDY SITES 3.1 The location of Bah Lias estate………………………………………….. 35 3.2 The fields in Bah Lias estate used in the study ………………………… 37 3.3 Detailed characteristics of the fields under study ……………………… 42 iv CHAPTER 4 - BIOLOGY AND ECOLOGY OF CONOPOMORPHA CRAMERELLA (Snellen) 4.1 Introduction……………………………………………………………… 44 4.2 Materials and Methods…………………………………………………... 45 4.2.1 Number of eggs on the pod …………………………………. 47 4.2.2 Larval count in pod…………………………………………. 48 4.2.3 The pupation………………………………………………… 51 4.2.4 Pupation patterns……………………………………………. 52 4.2.5 Timing of pupation………………………………………….. 52 4.2.6 Population of pupae in the field …………………………….. 53 4.2.7 Natural mortality of larval ………………………………… 55 4.2.8 Natural enemies of egg…………………………………….. 57 4.2.9 Natural enemies on field collected of pupae………………... 57 4.2.10 Natural enemies on filed introduced pupae………………… 57 4.2.11 Longevity of CPB moth…………………………………….. 59 4.2.12 Fecundity of CPB moth on the cocoa pod………………….. 60 4.2.13 The susceptible stage of cocoa pod to CPB damage……… 61 4.3 The Results 4.3.1 Eggs abundance……………………………………………. 63 4.3.2 Larval abundance…………………………………………… 66 4.3.3 The pupation………………………………………………… 69 4.3.4 Pupation patterns ……………………………………………. 69 4.3.5 Timing of pupation…………………………………………. 70 4.3.6 Population of pupae in the field …………………………….. 71 v 4.3.7 Natural mortality larvae……………………………………... 73 4.3.8 Natural enemies of eggs…………………………………….. 76 4.3.9 Natural enemies of field collected pupae …………………... 76 4.3.10 Natural enemies of field introduced pupae………………….. 76 4.3.11 Longevity of CPB moth…………………………………….. 77 4.3.12 Fecundity of CPB moth on the cocoa pod …………………... 78 4.4 Discussions 4.4.1 Eggs abundance……………………………………………... 80 4.4.2 Larval abundance…………………………………………… 82 4.4.3 Pupation, pupation pattern and timing of pupation…………. 83 4.4.4 Natural mortality of larvae …………………………………. 86 4.4.5 Natural enemies of eggs and pupal stage ………………… 87 4.4.6 Longevity of CPB moth…………………………………… 88 4.4.7 Fecundity of CPB moth on the cocoa pod…………………. 89 4.5 Conclusion………………………………………………………………. 90 CHAPTER 5 - DEVELOPING TECHNIQUE OF ESTABLISHMENT OF MEALYBUGS, CATAENOCOCCUS HISPIDUS (Morrison) 5.1 Introduction ……………………………………………………………… 92 5.2 Study sites……………………………………………………………… 93 5.3 Materials and Methods…………………………………………………. 93 5.3.1 Number of mealybug on cocoa husk slice…………………... 93 5.3.2 The effects of cocoa husk slice thickness on mealybug transfer ……………………………………………........... 94 vi 5.3.3 Mealybug movement ability on cocoa plant ……………… 95 5.3.4 Mealybug feeding effects on the formation of young pods…. 96 5.3.5 The efficiency of mealybug transfer methods ……………… 97 5.4. Results 5.4.1 Number of mealybug on cocoa husk slice…………………. 100 5.4.2 The effects of cocoa husk slice thickness on mealybug transfer …………………………………………………….. 100 5.4.3 Mealybug movement ability on cocoa plant ……………… 102 5.4.4 Effect of the mealybugs on the formation of young pods….. 103 5.4.5 The efficiency of transferring method of mealybugs ………. 103 5.5. Discussion 104 5.5.1 The population of mealybug on slices of cocoa husk ………. 104 5.5.2 The effects of thickness of slices of cocoa husk for transferring of mealybugs …………………………………. 104 5.5.3 Mealybug movement ability on cocoa plant……………….. 105 5.5.4 Effects on the mealybugs on the formation of young pods …. 105 5.5.5 The efficiency of the method of transferring mealybugs…… 105 5.6 Conclusions………………………………………………………… 107 CHAPTER 6 - SUPRESSION OF ANTAGONIST ANTS 6.1 Introduction……………………………………………………………. 108 6.2 Study area……………………………………………………………… 109 6.3 Materials and Methods…………………………………………………... 109 6.3.1 Suppression of foraging workers of O. smaragdina ………. 10 9 vii 6.3.2 Suppression of foraging workers of A. gracillipes………….. 111 6.3.3 Suppression of foraging workers of Technomyrmex. sp…… 113 6.3.4 Selection of baits……………………………………………. 116 6.4 Results 117 6.4.1 Suppression of foraging workers of O. smaragdina………… 117 6.4.2 Suppression of foraging workers of A. gracilipes…………… 118 6.4.3 Suppression of foraging workers of Technomyrmex sp…… 119 6.4.4 Selection of baits …………………………………………… 120 6.5 Discussion 125 6.5.1 Suppression of foraging workers of O. smaragdina……….. 125 6.5.2 Suppression of foraging workers of A. gracilipes………….. 126 6.5.3 Suppression of foraging workers of Technomyrmex sp…… 127 6.5.4 Selection of baits…………………………………………… 128 6.6 Conclusion ………………………………………………………………. 129 CHAPTER 7 - ESTABLISHMENT OF BLACK ANT, DOLICHODERUS THORACICUS (Smith) 7.1 Introduction……………………………………………………………… 130 7.2 Study sites ……………………………………………………………….. 131 7.3 Materials and Methods………………………………………………….. 131 7.3.1 A 14 month survey of black ant population in artificial nests of dried cocoa leaves……………………………………….. 131 7.3.2 Six types of artificial nest ………………………………….. 132 7.3.3 Twelve combination s of artificial