TRAINING OF TRAINERS CURRICULUM For the Department of Range Resources Management on climate-smart rangelands AUTHORS The training curriculum was prepared as a joint undertaking between the National University of Lesotho (NUL) and World Agroforestry (ICRAF). Prof. Makoala V. Marake Dr Botle E. Mapeshoane Dr Lerato Seleteng Kose Mr Peter Chatanga Mr Poloko Mosebi Ms Sabrina Chesterman Mr Frits van Oudtshoorn Dr Leigh Winowiecki Dr Tor Vagen Suggested Citation Marake, M.V., Mapeshoane, B.E., Kose, L.S., Chatanga, P., Mosebi, P., Chesterman, S., Oudtshoorn, F. v., Winowiecki, L. and Vagen, T-G. 2019. Trainer of trainers curriculum on climate-smart rangelands. National University of Lesotho (NUL) and World Agroforestry (ICRAF). ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS This curriculum is focused on training of trainer’s material aimed to enhance the skills and capacity of range management staff in relevant government departments in Lesotho. Specifically, the materials target Department of Range Resources Management (DRRM) staff at central and district level to build capacity on rangeland management. The training material is intended to act as an accessible field guide to allow rangeland staff to interact with farmers and local authorities as target beneficiaries of the information. We would like to thank the leadership of Itumeleng Bulane from WAMPP for guiding this project, including organising the user-testing workshop to allow DRRM staff to interact and give critical feedback to the drafting process. We would also like to acknowledge Steve Twomlow of IFAD for his passion and expertise and his extensive work on sustainable landscapes in Africa. Design layout by Debra-Jean Harte 2 TABLE OF CONTENTS MODULE 1: INTRODUCTION TO RANGELANDS Page 4 CHAPTER 1 - DEFINING RANGELANDS AND THE LESOTHO CONTEXT Page 11 CHAPTER 2 - GEOMORPHOLOGY & SOILS OF LESOTHO Page 21 CHAPTER 3 - BASIC ECOLOGICAL PROCESS Page 27 CHAPTER 4 - VEGETATION OF LESOTHO Page 46 CHAPTER 5 - THE ROLE OF PLANTS Page 63 CHAPTER 6 - THE ROLE OF ANIMALS UNDERSTANDING CLIMATE RISK, VULNERABILITY & MODULE 2: IMPACT ON RANGELANDS IN LESOTHO Page 75 CHAPTER 7 - CLIMATE AND CLIMATE CHANGE Page 98 CHAPTER 8 - LAND DEGRADATION AND SOIL EROSION MODULE 3: RANGELAND MANAGEMENT & GOVERNANCE IN LESOTHO Page 112 CHAPTER 9 - RESTORATION OF ERODED AND DEGRADED LANDS CHAPTER 10 - POLICY & LEGISLATIVE FRAMEWORKS FOR RANGE Page 120 MANAGEMENT IN LESOTHO Page 124 CHAPTER 11 - DROUGHT ECOLOGY & MANAGEMENT Page 132 CHAPTER 12 - GRAZING & BROWSING MANAGEMENT Page 142 CHAPTER 13 - FIRE ECOLOGY & MANAGEMENT Page 155 CHAPTER 14 - WETLAND ECOSYSTEMS AND MANAGEMENT Page 161 CHAPTER 15 - WATERSHED MANAGEMENT Page 168 CHAPTER 16 - FORAGE PRODUCTION MODULE 4: MONITORING RANGELAND CONDITION Page 183 CHAPTER 17 - RANGE CONDITION ASSESSMENT Page 202 CHAPTER 18 - LESOTHO’S NATIONAL RANGELAND MONITORING SYSTEM 3 MODULE 1 M1 INTRODUCTION TO RANGELANDS CHAPTER 1 DEFINING RANGELANDS AND THE LESOTHO CONTEXT Introduction Rangeland is the term used to describe arid or semi-arid land that is well suited for grazing. The term ‘rangeland’ refers to open natural areas used for extensive livestock production or set aside for conservation. The arid conditions along with poor soil quality make rangelands unfit for growing crops, which require nutrient-rich soil and proper irrigation. Some rangeland is dominated by grasses, others by shrubs or low-growing trees, while the driest rangelands are deserts. Importance of Rangelands While these lands may appear barren at first glance, there are a number of valuable uses of rangeland, including: Grazing of livestock - grasses and forage plants that grow in these climates are well- suited for grazing; Provide habitats for wildlife, and, if well-established, can boost the biodiversity of a region and bring stability to the ecosystem; Provide watersheds for use by surrounding communities; Recreation - the open spaces and natural beauty make them ideal for outdoor activities, including hiking, fishing, and hunting, biking, and driving off-road vehicles; Location for renewable energy sources such as wind and solar power due to the vast rolling landscapes. WHAT IS A WATERSHED? A watershed is an area of land that delivers rainwater or snowmelt into waterways. Watersheds are important because the water bodies they drain into provide drinking water and other benefits to humans and animals. Properly managed rangelands protect watersheds from erosion and pollutant runoff that can contaminate waterways. 4 Types of Rangelands A. Natural grassland rangeland Grasslands are characterised as lands dominated by grasses rather than large shrubs or trees, for example: grasses (Poaceae), sedge (Cyperaceae) and rush (Juncaceae). Grasslands (also known locally as makhulo) are dominated by a single layer of grasses. The amount of cover depends on rainfall and the degree of grazing. Trees are absent, except in a few localized habitats. Geophytes (bulbs) are often abundant. Frosts, fire and grazing maintain the grass dominance and prevent the establishment of other non-grass species. There are two categories of grass plants: Sweet grasses have lower fibre content, maintain their nutrients in the leaves in winter and are therefore palatable to stock. Sour grasses have higher fibre content and tend to withdraw their nutrients from the leaves during winter so that they are unpalatable to stock and have low nutritional value. Grass plants tolerate grazing, fire, and even mowing - most produce new stems readily, using a wide variety of strategies. Over-grazing tends to increase the proportion of pioneer, creeping and annual grasses, and it is in the transition zones between sweet and sour grass dominance that careful management is required to maintain the abundance of sweet grasses. LESOTHO GRASSLANDS The grassland is the mainstay of multi-purpose animals (dairy/beef and draught power) albeit a growing specialised production of semi- commercial dairy and small stock for wool and mohair production in Lesotho. Best management practices elsewhere indicate that pastures may be augmented especially in wetter areas by the inter- seeding of legumes and sweet grasses. However, in Lesotho, much of the Grassland Biome has been converted to arable agriculture mainly cereal production for staple crops such as maize, sorghum, wheat, legumes (beans and peas). According to the Lesotho Land Cover Atlas (FAO 2017). 5 B. Savannas rangeland A savanna is a grassland ecosystem characterised by sufficiently widely spaced so that the canopy does not close. The open canopy allows sufficient light to reach the ground to support an unbroken herbaceous layer consisting primarily of grasses. The environmental factors delimiting the savanna rangeland are complex: altitude ranges from sea level to 2,000m; rainfall varies from 235 to 1,000mm per year; frost may occur from 0 to 120 days per year; and almost every major geological and soil type occurs within the biome. A major factor delimiting the savanna is the lack of sufficient rainfall which prevents the upper tree layer from dominating, coupled with fires and grazing, which keeps the grass layer dominant. Summer rainfall is essential for grass dominance, which, with its fine material, fuels near-annual fires. In fact, almost all species are adapted to survive fires, usually with less than 10% of plants, both in the grass and tree layer, killed by fire. Even with severe burning, most species can re- sprout from the stem bases. The grass layer is dominated by C 4-type grasses, which are at an advantage where the growing season is hot. But where rainfall has a stronger winter component, C 3-type grasses dominate (Box 1). BOX 1 C3 AND C4 ASSIMILATION PATHWAYS Grasses are often described as being either C3 or C4 grasses. This refers to the pathway grasses use to capture carbon dioxide during photosynthesis. The more primitive C3 grasses fix an initial 3-carbon molecule during photosynthesis and the more advanced C4 grasses a 4-carbon molecule. These differences are important because the two pathways are also associated with different growth requirements. C3 plants are adapted to cool season establishment and growth in either wet or dry environments. On the other hand, C4 plants are more adapted to warm or hot seasonal conditions under moist or dry environments. A feature of C3 grasses is their greater tolerance of frost compared to C4 grasses. C3 species also tend to generate less bulk than C4 species. However, feed quality is often higher than C4 grasses. The table below shows the important differences: Factors Photosynthetic pathway C3 C4 Initial molecule formed during photosynthesis 3 carbon 4 carbon Cool season or Growth period year-long Warm season Light requirements Lower Higher Temperature requirements Lower Higher Moisture requirements Higher Lower Frost sensitivity Lower Higher Feed quality Higher Lower Production Lower Higher Festuca, Themeda, Bromus, Eragrostis, Example genera Merxmuellera, Aristida, Pentaschistis Panicum 6 Rangeland Management Rangeland management is defined as the science of managing natural resources, including vegetation, soil and water (which form part of rangelands). With rangeland management, an attempt is made to sustainably utilise the natural resources in line with human land use and growing population pressure. To successfully manage and sustainably utilise rangelands, the ecological principles governing the ecosystem should be understood and considered. Practically, rangeland management involves the following aspects: Controlling and regulating the movement of animals;