THE POLITICS OF THE MARKED BODY: AN EXAMINATION OF FEMALE GENITAL CUTTING AND BREAST IMPLANTATION by COURTNEY PAIGE SMITH A DISSERTATION Presented to the Department ofPolitical Science and the Graduate School ofthe University of Oregon in partial fulfillment ofthe requirements for the degree of Doctor ofPhilosophy June 2009 ---------------- --_._----- ------ - 11 University of Oregon Graduate School Confirmation of Approval and Acceptance of Dissertation prepared by: Courtney Smith Title: "The Politics ofthe Marked Body: An Examination ofFemale Genital Cutting and Breast Implantation" This dissertation has been accepted and approved in partial fulfillment ofthe requirements for the Doctor ofPhilosophy degree in the Department ofPolitical Science by: Dennis Galvan, Chairperson, Political Science Julie Novkov, Member, Political Science Leonard Feldman, Member, Political Science Stephen Wooten, Outside Member, Anthropology and Richard Linton, Vice President for Research and Graduate Studies/Dean ofthe Graduate School for the University of Oregon. June 13,2009 Original approval signatures are on file with the Graduate School and the University ofOregon Libraries. 111 An Abstract ofthe Dissertation of Courtney Paige Smith for the degree of Doctor ofPhilosophy in the Department ofPolitical Science to be taken June 2009 Title: THE POLITICS OF THE MARKED BODY: AN EXAMINATION OF FEMALE GENITAL CUTTING AND BREAST IMPLANTATION Approved: -,------ _ Dr. Dennis Galvan This project is a critical and comparative investigation ofWestern and non­ Western practices ofbody modification. Situated in the realm offeminist political theory, the project engages the literature and debates concerning embodiment, or the symbolic and concrete meanings ofwomen's bodies. I specifically explore two examples ofthe physical construction ofwomen's bodies: breast implantation in the United States and female genital cutting (FGC) in Senegal. I demonstrate that each ofthe practices molds bodies into preexisting naturalized forms. For this project, I conducted eighty in-depth, open-ended, and semi-structured interviews with women and men in twelve different locations in Senegal. Then, I carried out sixty-five in-depth, open-ended, and semi-structured interviews with American men and women from twenty-one different cities. IV I argue that the information that emerges from looking at body normalization comparatively allows me to make two important claims. The first is that the material that originates from interviews in this comparative study disrupts existing hegemonic discourse on sex-based body modifications. In particular, the comparative findings challenge the viewpoint that espouses a "Western women are free, African women are oppressed" binary. Second, examining FOe in Senegal alongside breast implantation in the US can uncover normalization that is invisible within social fields, or in the lives ofwomen and men. Normalization is hard to see when in it, but easier to see if an individual steps outside ofherself, her context, and her patriarchy. Thus, though many women do not recognize the normalizing structures within their own lives, they often are able to see these hegemonic structures in the lives ofothers. Women stepping outside oftheir own contexts can provide fresh, critical eyes that recognize embedded normalizations and oppression in other contexts. Further, this realization also can push them to return that critical gaze onto their own environment, which is the beginning oflocating mechanisms of control within their own field. The construction ofsex and the imprinting ofgender norms upon bodies are manifestations ofregulation and normalization that occur within socio-cultural contexts, and which individuals can potentially locate through a comparative conversation ofthis type. v CURRICULUM VITAE NAME OF AUTHOR: Courtney Paige Smith PLACE OF BIRTH: Silver City, New Mexico DATE OF BIRTH: May 4,1979 GRADUATE AND UNDERGRADUATE SCHOOLS ATTENDED: University ofOregon, Eugene Western Washington University, Bellingham DEGREES AWARDED: Doctor ofPhilosophy, Political Science, 2009, University ofOregon Master ofArts, Political Science, 2005, University of Oregon Bachelor ofArts, French, 2001, University ofOregon Bachelor ofArts, Political Science, 2001, University of Oregon AREAS OF SPECIAL INTEREST: Feminist Political Theory Gender Politics African Politics American Politics PROFESSIONAL EXPERIENCE: Instructor, Department ofPolitical Science, University of Oregon, Eugene, 2006­ 2009 Graduate Teaching Fellow, Department ofPolitical Science, University of Oregon, Eugene, 2001-2006 President, Graduate Teaching Fellows Federation, Eugene, 2007 Vl GRANTS, AWARDS, AND HONORS: Graduate Student Research Award, Department ofPolitical Science, University of Oregon, 2007 Jane Grant Dissertation Writing Grant, Center for the Study ofWomen in Society, University ofOregon, 2007 Hovet Teaching Award, Department ofPolitical Science, University ofOregon, 2006,2007 Graduate Student Research Support Grant, Center for the Study ofWomen in Society, University of Oregon, 2005 Graduate Summer Research Award, Center on Diversity and Community, University ofOregon, 2005 PUBLICATIONS: Smith, Courtney. "Transcultural Dialogue: Shifting the Discourse Concerning Female Genital Cutting and Breast Implantation." In Transnational Borderlands: The Making ofCultural Resistance in Women's Global Networks. Eds. Marta Sierra and Clara Roman-Odio. Syracuse: Syracuse University Press, Acceptedfor Publication. Smith, Courtney. "Creating Spaces: Challenging Conventional Discursive Norms Surrounding the Markings of Women's Bodies." The Finnish Journal ofEthnicity and Migration, 3:2 (October 2008), 54-64. Smith, Courtney. Encyclopedia Entry: "Andrea Dworkin". In Encyclopedia of the Culture Wars: Issues, Voices, and Viewpoints. Ed. Roger Chapman. Armonk, NY: M.E. Sharpe, December 2008. Southwell, Priscilla and Courtney Smith. "Equality of Recruitment: Gender Parity in French National Assembly Elections". Social Science Journal 44:1 (January 2007), 83-90. VB ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS I would not have finished this project without the encouragement, insightful critique, or mentorship ofJulie Novkov, nor would it have been as much fun. Deborah Baumgold was always willing to provide sage advice, an open ear, and a glass ofwine. Lennie Feldman provided invaluable theoretical guidance and inspiration. I would also like to extend appreciation to Stephen Wooten, particularly for the fantastic advice on conducting interviews. I am thankful as well to Dennis Galvan for introducing me to Senegal, and for pushing me to collect a hefty amount of interview material. Rose Diop was my lifeline in Senegal and an incredible translator and friend. I was logistically able to conduct research for this project thanks to the Center for the Study ofWomen in Society, the Center on Diversity and Community, the Department ofPolitical Science, and Carrie and Sinclair Smith. Thank you all for the generous support ofthis project. Many heartfelt thanks also go to Sarah Cribbs and Shannon Cocke. Their nutritious meals and spiritual mantras sustained me, especially near the end. Shannon Bell supplied protein, laughs, and friendship at the most helpful oftimes. Lora Vess was my dissertation cheerleader, muse, and sender offunny cards. Our dissertation-writing group was instrumental in completing this project and thus my thanks go to Jenny Hehnke, Ryan Smith, Sean Parson, and Bruno Anili for holding me accountable, giving helpful feedback, and fueling my love for bloody marys. Bruno Anili has also been the best officemate and friend I could hope for. V111 lowe much gratitude to Laurel Kinc1 and Esther Caballero-Manrique, my wonderful running partners and friends for the many miles during which they allowed me to work through issues, all while agreeing to go up one more hill, just for fun. Thank you as well to my running coach, Joe Henderson, for getting me hooked on long-distance running - the links between marathon running and dissertation writing are scary. Acknowledgements must also go to my family for their patience and confidence. My father in particular reminded me what is truly important. He is a warrior. Lastly, thank you to Jason Gettel, for everything he did for me at the end ofthis long process. His help and love were instrumental in completing this project. IX For the women and men who were kind enough to share their experiences and thoughts with me. May we all feel safe, comfortable, healthy, and beautiful in our bodies. x TABLE OF CONTENTS Chapter Page I. INTRODUCTION 1 1- Body Meanings and Markings 1 2- Theoretical History and Location 5 3- Searching for an Alternative Discourse 8 4- Methodological Approach .11 5- Interpreting Interview Findings .20 6- Roadmap ofDissertation 30 II. THEORETICAL FOUNDATIONS 33 1- Introduction 33 2- Sex and Gender as Social Constructs 36 3- Challenging the Naturalness ofSex ..40 4- Empirical Examples ofSex Construction 45 5- Critiques ofUniversalist Feminism: Unpacking the Category of"Third World" 50 6- Conclusion 57 III. FEMALE GENITAL CUTTING & THE IMPRINTING OF GENDER NORMS UPON BODIES 59 1- Introduction 59 2- Unpacking the Practices ofFemale Genital Cutting 60 3- Physical and Psychological Effects 63 4- Reasoning for Female Genital Cutting 64 5- Mutability ofFemale Genital Cutting 83 6- Senegalese Definitions ofWomanhood 84 Xl Chapter Page IV. NORMALIZING THE BREAST 91 1- Introduction 91 2- The Surgical Procedure ofBreast Implantation 92 3- Breasts: The Center ofa Woman's Bodily Experience