THE PARINIRVĀṆA CYCLE AND THE THEORY OF MULTIVALENCE: A STUDY OF GANDHĀRAN BUDDHIST NARRATIVE RELIEFS A THESIS SUBMITTED TO THE GRADUATE DIVISION OF THE UNIVERSITY OF HAWAI’I AT MĀNOA IN PARTIAL FULFILLMENT OF THE REQUIREMENT FOR THE DEGREE OF MASTER OF ARTS IN ART HISTORY MAY 2017 By Emily Hebert Thesis Committee: Paul Lavy, Chairperson Kate Lingley Jesse Knutson TABLE OF CONTENTS LIST OF FIGURES ....................................................................................................................... ii INTRODUCTION ......................................................................................................................... 1 CHAPTER 1. BUDDHISM IN GREATER GANDHĀRA ........................................................... 9 Geography of Buddhism in Greater Gandhāra ....................................................................... 10 Buddhist Textual Traditions in Greater Gandhāra .................................................................. 12 Historical Periods of Buddhism in Greater Gandhāra ........................................................... 19 CHAPTER 2. GANDHĀRAN STŪPAS AND NARRATIVE ART ............................................. 28 Gandhāran Stūpas and Narrative Art: Architectural Context ................................................. 35 CHAPTER 3. THE PARINIRVĀṆA CYLCE OF NARRATIVE RELIEFS ................................ 39 CHAPTER 4 .THE THEORY OF MULTIVALENCE AND THE PARINIRVĀṆA CYCLE ...... 44 CHAPTER 5. NARRATIVE RELIEF PANELS FROM THE PARINIRVĀṆA CYCLE ............ 58 Episode One: Parinirvāṇa and Śarīra-Pūjā of the Buddha without Mahākāśyapa ................ 65 Episode Two: Parinirvāṇa and Śarīra-Pūjā of the Buddha with Mahākāśyapa ..................... 78 Episode Three: The Cremation of the Body of the Buddha ..................................................... 85 Episode Four: Guarding of the Relics .....................................................................................88 Episode Five: Division and Distribution of the Relics ............................................................91 Episode Six: The Transportation of the Relics ........................................................................93 Episode Seven: The Veneration of the Relics ...........................................................................95 CONCLUSION ...........................................................................................................................104 FIGURES ....................................................................................................................................109 BIBLIOGRAPHY ........................................................................................................................182 LIST OF FIGURES Fig. 1 Parinirvāṇa (Śarīra-Pūjā of the Buddha), c. 100 CE, Gandhāra, stone, 19.1 x 30.5 cm, Honolulu Museum of Art, Honolulu, Hawai’i, accession no. 2719, purchased 1928 Fig. 2 Death of the Buddha, 1st-3rd century CE, Butkara, Swat, Gandhāra, black schist, 28.5 x 22 cm, Swat Museum, Mingora, Pakistan, accession no. A.M.S. INV: NO: 2437 Fig. 3 The Buddha’s Death, 1st-3rd century CE, Butkara I, Swat, 11.5 x 13.5 cm, stone, Museo Nazionale d'arte Orientale (National Museum of Oriental Art), Rome, Italy, Inv. No. 3591 Fig. 4 Death of the Buddha, 1st-3rd century CE, Takht-i-Bahi, Gandhāra, stone, 15.2 x 21 cm, Peshawar Museum, Peshawar, Pakistan, accession no. 1319 A, 1909 Fig. 5 Transportation of the Body, 1st-3rd century CE, Gandhāra, stone, Museo Nazionale d'arte Orientale (National Museum of Oriental Art), Rome, Italy, INV. 4360 Fig. 6 Bier of the Buddha, 2nd-3rd century CE, Shaikhan Dheri, Gandhāra, 20.33 x 20.33 cm, stone, Peshawar Museum, Peshawar, Pakistan, accession no. 2045/PM_02835 Fig. 7 The Buddha’s Obsequies, 1st-3rd century CE, Butkara I, Swat, 35.5 x 31.5 cm, stone, Museo Nazionale d'arte Orientale (National Museum of Oriental Art), Rome, Italy, Inv. No. 2549 Fig. 8 The Coffin of the Buddha, 1st-3rd century CE, Gandhāra, stone, 47.6 x 47.9 cm, Peshawar Museum, Peshawar, Pakistan, Gai Collection Fig. 9 The Coffin of the Buddha, 1st-3rd century CE, Sanghao, Gandhāra, stone, 29.2 x 33 cm, Lahore Museum, Lahore, Pakistan, accession no. 1111 Fig. 10 The Coffin of the Buddha, 3rd century CE, Mīyan Khān, Gandhāra, stone, 28.9 x 33 cm, Indian Museum, Calcutta, India Fig. 11 Parinirvāṇa of the Buddha, 3rd century CE, Gandhāra, schist, 27.3 x 32.5 x 7.2 cm, Museum für Asiatische Kunst (Museum of Asian Art), Staatliche Museen zu Berlin (National Museum in Berlin), Berlin, Germany, accession no. I 80 Fig. 12 Parinirvāṇa, 2nd-3rd century CE, Gandhāra, grey schist, 29.8 x 41.1 cm, Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York, accession no. 67.43.13, gift of Paul E. Manheim, 1967 Fig. 13 Parinirvāṇa, 2nd-3rd century CE, Loriyan Tangai, Gandhāra, schist, 53 x 48 cm, Victoria and Albert Museum, London, accession no. IM.247-1927 &ii Fig. 14 Death of the Buddha, 1st-3rd century CE, Gandhāra, stone, 21 x 24.13 cm, Lahore Museum, Lahore, Pakistan, accession no. 224 Fig. 15 Parinirvāṇa, 2nd-3rd century CE, Takht-i-Bahi, Gandhāra, schist, 27.2 x 44.3 cm, British Museum, London, registration no. 1899, 0715.9 Fig. 16 Parinirvāṇa, 1st-3rd century CE, Loriyan Tangai, Gandhāra, 45.72 (h) cm, schist, Indian Museum, Calcutta, accession no. 5147 Fig. 17 Parinirvāṇa, late 2nd - early 3rd century CE, Gandhāra, 67 x 289.8 x 9.8 cm (dimensions only provide for entire set of four reliefs), stone, Freer Gallery of Art, Washington D. C., accession no. F1949.9 Fig. 18 Death of the Buddha, 2nd-3rd century CE, Jamal Garhi, Gandhāra, 21.60 x 22.87 cm, stone, Peshawar Museum, Peshawar, Pakistan, accession no. 1883/PM_02829 Fig. 19 Death of the Buddha, 2nd-3rd century CE, Takht-i Bahi, Gandhāra, 19.06 x 36.85 cm, stone, Peshawar Museum, Peshawar, Pakistan, accession no. 775/PM_02828 Fig. 20 Death of the Buddha, 2nd-3rd century CE, Sahri Bahlol, Gandhāra, 27.96 x 39.40 cm, stone, Peshawar Museum, Peshawar, Pakistan, accession no. 130/PM_02827 Fig. 21 Death of the Buddha, 2nd-3rd century CE, Gandhāra, 24.15 x 48.40 cm, stone, Peshawar Museum, Peshawar, Pakistan, PM_01957 Fig. 22 Death of the Buddha, 2nd-3rd century CE, Sahri Bahlol, Gandhāra, 26.69 x 34.31 cm, stone, Peshawar Museum, Peshawar, Pakistan, PM_02826 Fig. 23 Shrouded Buddha, 2nd-3rd century CE, Mamane Dheri, Charsadda, Gandhāra, 13.98 x 20.33 cm, stone, Peshawar Museum, Peshawar, Pakistan, 975-M/PM_02825 Fig. 24 (A-D/top-bottom panels) Unidentified (A), Parinirvāṇa (B), Distribution of the relics (C), Cult of the Stūpa (D), 1st-3rd century CE, Takht-i-Bahi, Gandhāra, schist, 44.5 x 43.2 cm, Peshawar Museum, Peshawar, Pakistan, accession no. 1846, 1912-13 Fig. 25 Cremation of the Buddha (proper left) and Guarding of the Relics (proper right), 1st-3rd century CE, Gandhāra, grey schist, Indian Museum, Calcutta, India, no. 13854 Fig. 26 Parinirvāṇa (proper left) and Cremation of the Buddha (proper right), 1st-3rd century CE, Peshawar Valley, Gandhāra, grey schist, 28 x 45 cm, Victoria and Albert Museum, London, accession no. IM.215-1921. &iii Fig. 27 Death of the Buddha (proper left) and Cremation of the Buddha (proper right), 1st-3rd century CE, Gandhāra, stone, 16.2 x 43.8 cm, Peshawar Museum, Peshawar, Pakistan, accession no. 697 Fig. 28 Cremation of the Buddha, 1st-3rd century CE, Gandhāra, schist, 10.6 cm (h), Allahabad Municipal Museum, Allahabad, India, National Documentation No. NM-ALH-68845 Fig. 29 Cremation of the Buddha, 2nd century CE, Gandhāra, 31 x 29 x 6 cm, Museum für Asiatische Kunst (Museum of Asian Art), Staatliche Museen zu Berlin (National Museum in Berlin), Berlin, Germany, accession no. I 5971 Fig. 30 Cremation of the Buddha, 1st-3rd century CE, Takht-i-Bahi, Gandhāra, stone, 15.2 cm, Peshawar Museum, Peshawar, Pakistan, accession no. 1319 B, 1909 Fig. 31 The Urn Carried into Kusinagara, 1st-3rd century CE, Gandhāra, stone, 20.6 cm, Lahore Museum, Lahore, Pakistan, accession no. 148 Fig. 32 Guarding of the Relics, 2nd-3rd century CE, Jamal Garhi, Gandhāra, 20.33 x 40.67 cm, stone, Peshawar Museum, Peshawar, Pakistan, accession no. 1894/PM_02834 Fig. 33 Worship of the Relics, 1st-3rd century CE, Loriyan Tangai, Gandhāra, schist, Indian Museum, Calcutta, India, accession no. 13764 Fig. 34 Guarding of the Relics, 2nd-3rd century CE, Malakand, Swat, Gandhāra, black schist, 43 x 24 cm, Swat Museum, Mingora, Pakistan, accession no. A.M.S. INV: NO: M.K. 76 Fig. 35 Guarding the Urn, 1st-3rd century CE, Takht-i-Bahi, Gandhāra, stone, 15.2 cm, Peshawar Museum, Peshawar, Pakistan, accession no. 1319 C, 1909 Fig. 36 Two Events in the Life of the Buddha, c. late 1st century CE, possibly Sikri, Gandhāra, 18 x 29.5 cm, chlorite mica schist, University of Missouri-Columbia Museum of Art and Archaeology, Columbia, Missouri, accession no. 74. 128, gift of Samuel Eilenberg Fig. 37 Worship of the Relics, 2nd-3rd century CE, Gandhāra, 15.25 x 27.96 cm, stone, Peshawar Museum, PM_02839 Fig. 38 Worship of the Relics, 2nd-3rd century CE, Sahri Bahlol, Gandhāra, 11.44 x 53.38 cm, stone, Peshawar Museum, Peshawar, Pakistan, accession no. 153/PM_02841 Fig. 39 Distribution of the Relics, 2nd-3rd century CE, Gandhāra, 22.87 x 66.08 cm, stone, Peshawar Museum, Peshawar, Pakistan, PM_02830 Fig. 40 Distribution of the Relics, 2nd-3rd century CE, Gandhāra, 19.06 x 31.77 cm, stone, Peshawar Museum, Peshawar, Pakistan, accession no. 2043/PM_0192 iv & Fig. 41 Division of the Relics, 1st-2nd century CE, Gandhāra, schist, 22.5 x 37.5 cm, British Museum, London, registration no. 1966, 1017.1