THE COMPOUND NOUN IN NORTHERN SOTHO BY LEKAU ELEAZAR MPHASHA Dissertation presented for the Degree of Doctor of Literature at the University of Stellenbosch. PROMOTOR: PROF. M. V. VISSER DECEMBER 2006 http://scholar.sun.ac.za i DECLARATION I, the undersigned, hereby declare that the work contained in this thesis is my own original work and that I have not previously in its entirety or in part submitted it at any university for a degree. -------------------------------- ---------------------------- Signature Date http://scholar.sun.ac.za ii ABSTRACT This study explores the various elements which appear in compound nouns in Northern Sotho. The purpose of this study fill in an important gap in the Northern Sotho language studies as regards the morphological structure of compound nouns in Northern Sotho. This study is organized as follows: CHAPTER ONE presents an introduction to the study. The introductory sections which appear in this chapter include the aim of the study, the methodology and different views of researchers of other languages on compound nouns. Different categories which appear with the noun in the Northern Sotho compound are identified. CHAPTER TWO deals with the different features of the noun in Northern Sotho. It examines the various class prefixes, nominal stems/roots and nominal suffixes which form nouns. Nouns appear in classes according to the form of their prefixes. The morphological structures of the nouns have been presented. It also reviews the meanings, sound/phonological changes and origins of nouns. CHAPTER THREE is concerned with the nominal heads of compound nouns. It examines compounds that are formed through a combination of nouns, and compounds that are formed from nouns together with other syntactic categories. Arguments which defend the structure of different compounds with nominal heads are presented. CHAPTER FOUR explores compound nouns with verbal heads. It examines various elements of compound nouns with a verb as one of its components. The entire chapter includes examples that illustrate that when a verbal form appears with a noun, it is adapted to a noun by the addition of the relevant prefixes and suffixes. http://scholar.sun.ac.za iii CHAPTER FIVE gives an overview of the findings, and presents the conclusions, of the research on compound nouns in Chapters Three and Four. http://scholar.sun.ac.za iv OPSOMMING Hierdie studie ondersoek die verskillende morfologiese elemente wat in saamgestelde naamwoorde in Noord-Sotho verskyn. Die doel van die studie is dus om ‘n belangrike gaping te vul in Noord-Sotho taalstudie rakende die morfologiese struktuur van saamgestelde naamwoorde in Noord-Sotho. Die studie is soos volg georganiseer: HOOFSTUK EEN bied die inleiding tot die studie. Die inleidende afdelings wat in hierdie hoofstuk verskyn, sluit in ‘n uiteensetting van die doelwitte van die studie, die metodologie, en verskillende beskouings van navorsers oor saamgestelde naamwoorde in ander tale. Verskillende kategorieë wat verskyn in die Noord-Sotho samestelling word geïdentifiseer. HOOFSTUK TWEE ondersoek die onderskeibare kenmerke van die naamwoord in Noord-Sotho. Dit gee ‘n oorsig van die verskillende klasprefikse, naamwoordstamme en naamwoordelike suffikse waaruit naamwoorde gevorm word. Die morfologie van die Noord-Sotho naamwoorde word beskou, en dié hoofstuk gee ook ‘n oorsig van die betekenisse, klankveranderinge en oorspronge van naamwoorde. HOOFSTUK DRIE ondersoek saamgestelde naamwoorde met naamwoordelike kerne (‘heads’). Dit ondersoek saamgestelde naamwoorde wat gevorm word deur ‘n kombinasie van naamwoorde, en saamgestelde naamwoorde wat gevorm word deur ‘n kombinasie van naamwoorde en ander sintaktiese kategorieë. Argumente wat die strukture van die verskillende saamgestelde naamwoorde ondersteun, word aangebied. HOOFSTUK VIER ondersoek saamgestelde naamwoorde met werkwoordelike kerne (‘heads’). Dit ondersoek verskillende elemente van ‘n saamgestelde naamwoord met ‘n werkwoord as een van die komponente. Die volle hoofstuk sluit voorbeelde in wat http://scholar.sun.ac.za v illustreer dat wanneer ‘n werkwoordelike vorm met ‘n naamwoord verskyn, dit aangepas word tot ‘n naamwoord deur die byvoeging van relevante prefikse en suffikse. HOOFSTUK VYF bied ‘n oorskou van die bevindings en die gevolgtrekkings van die navorsing in hoofstukke Drie en Vier. http://scholar.sun.ac.za vi DEDICATION This study is dedicated to the following people: My late father : Ramomedi Abiel My mother : Setishi Albina My sister : Moyahabo Priscilla My children : Phophi Selokela, Koketso, Moyahabo Priscilla and Ramomedi Abigail My nephews : Madjadji Catherine and Thothobela Rachel http://scholar.sun.ac.za vii ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS A Northern Sotho proverb that says ditau tša hloka seboka di šitwa le ke nare e hlotša (unity is strength) means that one cannot do anything without the help of other people. Different individuals have assisted me in a variety of ways to make this study a reality. I, therefore, would like to register my sincere gratitude to the following people: Prof. M. W. Visser, my promoter, for her patience and scholarly guidance during my years of study. She was kind to refer me to additional references especially during the early stages of this research. I really want to thank her for her untiring efforts. Without her, my dream would not have come true. Prof. J. A. Du Plessis, my guide who, with admirable diligence, carried the major part of the work load untiringly. His generous and constructive guidance encouraged me a great deal in developing an interest in this field. Members of staff of the Department of African Languages at the University of Stellenbosch, among who are Prof. N. S. Zulu, Drs. M. Dlali, P. N. Satyo and Mr. M. W. Jadezweni, for making me feel at home in this department. Prof. R. N. Madadzhe, senior lecturer in the School of Languages and Communication Studies at the University of Limpopo, for his invaluable assistance in solving many problems that at times confronted me. Professional typist, Mrs. C. R. Manaka, for typing Chapter One of this dissertation. Ms. Moorane Evelyn Molelemane, for typing Chapters Two, Three and Four of the dissertation. http://scholar.sun.ac.za viii Mr. Machaba Motheta, for typing Chapter Five. My nephews, Ms. Madjadji Catherine and Ms Thothobela Rachel Mphasha, for their share in typing and rearranging this dissertation. The Lord, for the strength and wisdom He gave me during my research. http://scholar.sun.ac.za ix TABLE OF CONTENTS CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION 1.1 AIM.................................................................................................... 1 1.2 METHODOLOGY .................................................................................. 3 1.3 ORGANIZATION OF THE STUDY........................................................... 4 1.4 DIFFERENT VIEWS ON COMPOUND NOUNS .......................................... 4 1.4.1 Fabb (1984)........................................................................................ 4 1.4.2 Downing (1977) ................................................................................ 18 1.4.3 Bybee (1985).................................................................................... 24 1.4.4 Carstairs-McCarthy (1992) ................................................................. 25 1.4.5 Scalise (1984) ................................................................................... 27 1.4.6 Dressler, Luschutzky, Pfeiffer and Renninson (1990) ............................ 31 1.4.7 Matthews (1972)............................................................................... 37 1.4.8 Lieber (1992).................................................................................... 40 1.4.9 Roeper and Siegel (1978) .................................................................. 49 1.4.10 Levi (1978) ....................................................................................... 55 1.4.11 Warren (1978) .................................................................................. 57 1.4.12 Hammond and Noonan (1988) ........................................................... 63 1.4.13 Beard (1966) .................................................................................... 64 1.4.14 Di Sciullo and Williams (1987) ............................................................ 68 1.4.15 Spencer (1991) ................................................................................. 71 1.4.16 Shibatani and Kageyama (1988)......................................................... 76 1.4.17 Aronoff (1994) .................................................................................. 79 1.4.18 Marchand (1960)............................................................................... 80 1.4.19 Bhat (1994) ...................................................................................... 84 1.4.20 Selkirk (1982) ................................................................................... 86 http://scholar.sun.ac.za x CHAPTER 2: THE MORPHOLOGY AND SEMANTICS OF THE NOUN IN NORTHERN SOTHO 2.1 AIM.................................................................................................. 93 2.2 NOUN CLASS .................................................................................... 93 2.3 NOUN CLASS PREFIXES ..................................................................... 97 2.3.1 Class 1/2: [mo-/ba-]......................................................................... 97 2.3.2 Class 1a/2a......................................................................................