The Disturbing Virgin: An Analysis of Criticism on Mary Wilkins Freeman’s short story “A New England Nun” Line Næstby Tidemann LIT4390 Master Thesis in Comparative Literature Fall 2007 Department of Literature, Area Studies and European Languages Faculty of Humanities University of Oslo Abstract Few female literary characters have been treated with more scorn and ridicule than the ‘spinster’. In this essay, I examine how modern critics of Mary Wilkins Freeman’s “A New England Nun” (1891) have interpreted the unmarried female protagonist of this short story, Louisa Ellis. Representative critical strategies are analysed with focus on how they interpret the protagonist, and what the political and methodological implications of choosing a particular strategy are. The two common perspectives on the text are the male-centered and the feminist, where the former interpret Louisa as mentally ill and the latter define her as a woman artist. Although the aim of these strategies is to contradict each other, I show how they both interpret Louisa Ellis according to a patriarchal understanding of women. This suggests that the difference between the two strategies is that of evaluation and explanation rather than perspective. I argue that the motivation behind most interpretations of the text is to appropriate the female protagonist into a system of thought which ultimately serves the interests of patriarchal society. The result is a transformation of a complex female character into a stereotype according to a simplistic victim/heroine dichotomy. My interpretation of “A New England Nun” shows how the text undermines traditional notions of gender and therefore has a radically subversive potential. The male character Joe Dagget has a feminine personality, while the two female characters Louisa Ellis and Lily Dyer embody masculine character traits. This has never been suggested before. My main argument is that most critics have misinterpreted the text, since they try unsuccessfully to read the text on its own premises, but fail to acknowledge the reversal of traditional notions of gender that these characters portray. Instead, they claim that the text is ambiguous; an ambiguity which I argue is not located in the text, but is created in the critic whose expectations are not fulfilled. To resolve the ambiguity, critics misinterpret the text so that the characters are made to fit notions of gender that they expect to encounter in a nineteenth- century story, meanwhile making the text predictable and harmless. In this context, the consequence of misinterpretations is that critics re-define and elevate the male character Joe at the cost of Louisa and the authority of the text. An important aspect of other critics’ misinterpretations is that they mostly make the same errors. This indicates that they do not arise from individual inclinations, but rather on the cultural conventions which influence their reading and the ideological pressures working on them. By analysing “A New England Nun” with focus on its subversive potential and by analysing the misinterpretations of it, I formulate the ideological pressures working on the critics of this story. 2 Acknowledgments First of all I would like to thank my mother and father for making it possible for me to become the first person ever in my family to gain a university degree. Without their endless moral support, not to mention financial support, this project would have been impossible. I am grateful to Irene Iversen for giving me solid and thorough advice. By treating my thesis as if it were a dissertation, she has inspired me and greatly improved the quality of my arguments. I am also grateful to Rebecca Lynne Sherr for finding time in a busy schedule to read my drafts and discuss my future. Our meetings have given me the confidence to believe that my opinions matter, and the courage to pursue them. I would like to thank Nils Axel Nissen for introducing me to “A New England Nun” and its critics. By rewarding my initial attempt to discuss the text with an inspirationally good grade, he helped me decide the topic for this thesis. I would also like to thank Janicke Kaasa for being an excellent reader of my drafts, and Åse Syversen for drawing my attention to sociological theory. Last, but not least, I am forever grateful to René Brunsvik for his astonishing belief in my intellectual capacities. Due to his help, support, and high fives, the writing process became pleasurable where it would otherwise have been frustrating. The carpenter analogy in Chapter Two is dedicated to him. 3 Contents: Abstract 2 Acknowledgments 3 Introduction 5 Chapter One: In Pursuit of the Author 10 • The Author as Judge 11 • Resolving Ambiguity 13 • Authority and Interpretation 14 • Closure 17 • “A New England Nun” 20 Chapter Two: Madness and Reason 28 • An Obsessive Neurosis 29 • Obsessive, Incessant, and Fetishistic Behavior 34 • Natural and Artificial: Inside and Outside the Ideological Circle 38 • The ‘Realist’ Reader 42 • The ‘Madness’ of Louisa Ellis 44 Chapter Three: Connecting to the Mind of the Absent Author 47 • A Feminist Praxis 48 • In a Closet Hidden... 50 • From Acceptance to Rejection 53 • The Dilemma of the Woman Artist 56 • A Conscious Choice 58 • The Feminist Heroine 61 Chapter Four: The Disturbing Virgin 64 • Repressed Desires 65 • Sexual Pleasure 71 • The Disturbing Virgin 76 Chapter Five: Stigma and Language 81 • Stigma Theory 82 • A Feminist Dilemma 84 • Silent Resistance 87 • Therapy and Murder 89 • How Should We Read? 93 • Consequences 95 Bibliography 97 4 Introduction In Thinking About Women (1968), Mary Ellmann claimed that “nothing is more reliable than the irritability of all references to prolonged virginity: behind us, and undoubtedly before us, stretch infinite tracts of abuse of maiden ladies, old maids, schoolmarms, dried-up spinsters, etc., etc.” (136). Most critical essays on Mary Wilkins Freeman’s short story “A New England Nun” (1891) were written after the publication of Ellmann’s influential book. They nevertheless fit the description ‘infinite tracts of abuse’ of the ‘dried-up spinster’, and thus indicate that Ellmann’s prediction for future criticism was right. The ‘spinster’ of “A New England Nun” is the protagonist Louisa Ellis, who decides to break the engagement to her fiancé of fifteen years when she discovers that he has fallen in love with another woman. What most critics appear to find problematic is how to interpret the relief and peacefulness which the decision to remain unmarried provides Louisa Ellis with. Although her situation as unmarried woman in Victorian society is familiar to us, we are not quite accustomed to a woman who embraces her solitude and seems to wish nothing else. Indeed, Louisa is an unconventional woman. The works of Mary Wilkins Freeman (1852–1930) are usually placed in the American ‘local color’ tradition. She is best known for her depiction of New England village life, which often focuses on oppressed and rebellious women. Freeman wrote and published successfully during most of her adult life, and gained a recognition that was exceptional for women writers at the time. She found a ready market for her poems, stories, plays, and novels, and her popularity has also been substantial within academic criticism. “A New England Nun” was first published in A New England Nun and Other Stories (1891), and is one of her most popular and widely anthologized stories. It has gained more attention from critics than any other text by Freeman. The plot of “A New England Nun” is relatively straightforward. In the beginning of the story Louisa Ellis is described by the narrator as peacefully sewing and carefully preparing her lunch. Enter Joe Dagget, Louisa’s fiancé of fifteen years, the man Louisa will marry in a month. The following conversation between them reveals that their relationship is awkward and tense, and that both are obviously uncomfortable in the presence of the other. The reader is then taken back to the days when a young Louisa Ellis agrees to marry Joe Dagget, followed by his departure for Australia where he intends to make a fortune. Upon his unannounced arrival in New England fifteen years later, Louisa’s comfortable habit of solitary living is interrupted by the necessity of preparing herself for the forthcoming marriage. Then, 5 one week before the wedding, Louisa goes for a solitary evening stroll. She accidentally overhears a conversation followed by an embrace between Joe Dagget and his maid Lily Dyer. After having heard the couple declare their love for each other, Louisa sneaks home unobserved. The next day she breaks the engagement without mentioning Lily Dyer, and thus enables Joe and Lily to get married, while choosing a solitary life for herself. Louisa’s unconventional choice of remaining unmarried even when the opportunity of marriage is available to her has induced modern critics to try to establish the exact pretext and consequence of this choice once and for all. In the process, critics have divided themselves into two distinct groups, where one group reads Louisa from a traditional male-centered perspective, while the other group reads Louisa from a feminist perspective. It is generally acknowledged that the first modern interpretation of the story was done by David Hirsch in the essay “Subdued Meaning in ‘A New England Nun’” (1965), and his article will therefore represent the beginning of modern criticism on the story in my essay. In addition, his essay is the foundation for all subsequent male-centered interpretations of the text. Hirsch reads the story as “almost a case study of an obsessive neurosis” (125), thus ascribing Louisa’s rejection of Joe to mental illness. In “An Uncloistered ‘New England Nun’” (1983), Marjorie Pryse contradicts Hirsch’s interpretation, and reads the text from a feminist perspective. Pryse describes Louisa’s rejection of Joe as making her “heroic, active, wise, ambitious, and even transcendent” (289).