Wild resources and cultural practices in rural and urban households in South Africa Implications for bio-cultural diversity conservation Michelle Cocks WILD PLANT RESOURCES AND CULTURAL PRACTICES IN RURAL AND URBAN HOUSEHOLDS IN SOUTH AFRICA Implications for bio-cultural diversity conservation Michelle Cocks Promotoren: Prof. Dr. H. Schanz, Hoogleraar Bos en Natuurbeleid, Wageningen Universiteit Prof. C. Shackleton, Professor Environmental Science, Rhodes University, South Africa Co-promotor: Dr.Ir. K.F. Wiersum, Universitair Hoofddocent, Leerstoelgroep Bos- en natuurbeleid, Wageningen Universiteit. Promotie-commissie: Professor Dr. A. Niehof, Wageningen Universiteit Professor Dr. P.L. Howard, Wageningen Universiteit Professor Dr. M.G.C. Schouten, Wageningen Universiteit Dr. G.A. Persoon, Leiden Universiteit Dit onderzoek is uitgevoerd binnen de onderzoekschool CERES. WILD PLANT RESOURCES AND CULTURAL PRACTICES IN RURAL AND URBAN HOUSEHOLDS IN SOUTH AFRICA Implications for bio-cultural diversity conservation Michelle Cocks Proefschrift ter verkrijging van de graad van doctor op gezag van de rector magnificus van Wageningen Universiteit, Prof. Dr. M.J. Kropff in het openbaar te verdedigen op 11 Oktober 2006 des namiddags te half twee in de Aula Cocks, M. (2006) Wild plant resources and cultural practices in rural and urban households in South Africa. Implications for bio-cultural diversity conservation PhD thesis Wageningen Universitty, Wageningen, The Netherlands ISBN 90-8504-471-5 Key Words: wild plant use, woodland and forest resources, plant diversity, bio-cultural diversity, cultural and utilitarian values, rural dynamics, community differentiation, rural – urban relations, Eastern Cape, Xhosa people Dedicated to my beloved soul mate and husband, Tony Dold. TABLE OF CONTENTS Table of contents vii Prologue ix Chapter 1 1 General introduction PART ONE – RESEARCH PERSPECTIVE Chapter 2 19 Bio-cultural diversity: Moving beyond the realm of ‘indigenous’ and ‘local’ people. M.L. Cocks (2006). Human Ecology 34(2): 185-200. Chapter 3 37 The significance of biodiversity to rural households in Eastern Cape Province of South Africa. M.L. Cocks and K.F. Wiersum 2002. Forests, Trees and Livelihoods 13: 39–58. PART TWO - USE OF WILD PLANT PRODUCTS IN RURAL AREAS Chapter 4 61 Seeing the wood for the trees: The role of woody resources for the construction of gender specific household cultural artefacts in the non-traditional communities in the Eastern Cape, South Africa. M.L. Cocks, L. Bangay, K.F. Wiersum and A.P. Dold (In press). Environment, Development and Sustainability (2006). Chapter 5 81 ‘Rich man poor man’ – inter-household and community factors influencing the use of wild plant resources amongst rural households in South Africa. M.L. Cocks, L. Bangay, C.M. Shackleton and K.F. Wiersum (Submitted). International Journal of Sustainable Development of World Ecology. PART THREE - USE OF WILD PLANT PRODUCTS IN URBAN AREAS Chapter 6 111 A new broom sweeps clean: The economic and cultural value of grass brooms in the Eastern Cape Province, South Africa. M.L. Cocks and A.P. Dold 2004. Forests, Trees and Livelihoods 14: 33-42. Chapter 7 123 Cultural significance of biodiversity: The role of medicinal plants in urban African cultural practices in the Eastern Cape, South Africa. M.L. Cocks and A.P. Dold (2006). Journal of Ethnobiology 26(1): 60-82. Chapter 8 145 The significance of natural resources to urban households: Implications for bio- cultural diversity in South Africa. M.L. Cocks, L. Bangay (Submitted). Society and natural resources. PART FOUR – REFLECTION Chapter 9 169 Synthesis and conclusion Summary 185 Samenvatting 189 Completed training and supervision plan 195 Curriculum Vitae 197 Michelle Linda Cocks PROLOGUE While I sit here reflecting over the past four years I wonder if I would have had the courage to begin this journey had I known where it would take me? It has been a journey filled with such extremes as I have learnt both about the wonders of humanity as well as its cruelty. The journey of my discovery of the value of plants to people began in ‘true anthropology’ style. As I was driving with my field assistant, Nomtunzi Sizani, through one of the many rural villages in which I have worked in the Eastern Cape, I casually asked her about the huge woodpiles I saw outside people’s homesteads and at the time her response was simply that they were called amagoqo and in my cultural naivety I merely assumed they represented piles of fuel wood. To cut a long story short and after much stumbling around I discovered that these huge piles of wood had very little to do with the household’s need for fuel but fulfilled an important cultural role within women’s lives. This made me question how many other times we had misunderstood the use of plant material in people’s lives. Once I began asking the right questions a whole new world opened up to me as I began to get a feel for the importance that plants have for the amaXhosa people. I have many fond memories of the people I have met and worked with along the way who have been so warm and hospitable to me. They also never grew impatient of all my endless questions, as new experiences sparked my curiosity. I also have so many heart- warming and amusing stories to tell of my interactions with people who have shared with me what plants have meant to them. Sadly, however, during fieldwork in 2002, a colleague and I were hijacked and brutally assaulted by a gang of criminals, who left us for dead in the bush. At the time I was four months pregnant and the attack resulted in me losing our first son. As a victim of a brutal act of violence there are no words to describe the effect that such an act has on one’s life. My physical damage healed fairly quickly but the psychological effects took a lot longer as my faith in humanity was completely destroyed, as I felt so angry and betrayed. It literally took months of daily mental battles to claim my life back. Without the loving support of my husband, Tony Dold, and family to conquer many of my psychological demons, I know I would not have been able to complete this work. This has shown me the true value of family for which I will be eternally grateful. I also thank the public of South Africa, for their support after the attack and subsequent court case. The Peddie Women’s Group deserve special mention for their public support through demonstrations during the protracted court cases. Tony’s theoretical contributions, botanical expertise and his shared love for people and plants has made this journey a wonderful experience to share. His ability to capture the significance that people attach to plants through his photographs has provided me with much inspiration to conserve our cultural and biological diversity in South Africa. I also need to make special mention to Mandy Cocks for assisting me in the mindless task of data capture which was no mean feat. I will also always be grateful to Nomtunzi Sizani, my friend, translator, and mentor to amaXhosa culture, without whom much of the material gathered would have been meaningless. I also wish to extend my deepest gratitude to Dr Freerk Wiersum who, despite my ordeal in 2002, never lost faith in me to regain my passion for people and plants. Neither did he ever question my ability to complete this doctorate. His guidance and insight has both expanded my scientific inquiry and improved the quality of this work considerably. His attention to detail and devoted availability over the past four years has been very much appreciated. I also thank Professor Charlie Shackleton, who has been very supportive and encouraging and has always been willing to listen to my concerns and fears. This study was carried out with the scientific and logistic support of the Forest and Nature Conservation Policy Group (FNP), Wageningen University. I also wish to thank former Chair group Professor, Professor Heiner Schanz. To all my colleagues of the FNP group who always made me feel immediately welcome, thank you for making my visits to Wageningen so memorable. I only hope one day to return this hospitality. This study would not have been completed without the financial support from the South African Netherlands Programme for Alternatives in Development (SANPAD) and the Carolina MacGillavry programme of the International Foundation of Science (IFS) and the Royal Academy of Sciences (KNAW) from the Netherlands, the MacGillavry. Professor Valerie Møller, HOD of the Institute of Social and Economic Research (ISER), generously allowed me the freedom to explore my passion for research into Imithi yesiXhosa (Xhosa plants). I also wish to thank members of the Institute and associated colleagues at Rhodes University for their support down the many paths I’ve had to travel over the past four years. I hope that this work provides some insight into the value and importance that people attach to plants and contributes in some way to the understanding of the culture, customs, and way of life of the people of the Eastern Cape. Only through a mutual understanding and respect of the many cultures of this rainbow nation can we travel together into the future of a united South Africa. WILD PLANT RESOURCES AND CULTURAL PRACTICES IN RURAL AND URBAN HOUSEHOLDS IN SOUTH AFRICA Implications for bio-cultural diversity conservation Michelle Cocks CHAPTER 1 GENERAL INTRODUCTION 2 Bio-cultural diversity Figure 1: Typical peri-urban landscape in the study site (Photo A. Dold) Figure 2: Typical urban settlement in the study site (Photo A. Dold) General introduction 3 1. INTRODUCTION In the late 19th century the first initiatives to establish nature reserves and national parks in the United States was heavily influenced by historical and socio-economic factors in Europe.