View metadata, citation and similar papers at core.ac.uk brought to you by CORE provided by Cork Open Research Archive Title Gamification as behavioral psychology Author(s) Linehan, Conor; Kirman, Ben; Roche, Bryan Editor(s) Walz, Steffen P. Deterding, Sebastian Publication date 2015-01 Original citation Linehan, C., Kirman, B. and Roche, B. (2015) 'Gamification as behavioral psychology' in Walz, S.P. and Deterding, S. (eds.) The Gameful World: Approaches, Issues, Applications. Cambridge, MA, USA : MIT Press, pp. 81-105. Type of publication Book chapter Link to publisher's https://mitpress.mit.edu/books/gameful-world version Access to the full text of the published version may require a subscription. Rights © 2014, Massachusetts Institute of Technology. All rights reserved. No part of this chapter may be reproduced in any form by any electronic or mechanical means (including photocopying, recording, or information storage and retrieval) without permission in writing from the publisher. Item downloaded http://hdl.handle.net/10468/3462 from Downloaded on 2017-02-12T06:33:32Z PROPERTY OF THE MIT PRESS FOR PROOFREADING, INDEXING, AND PROMOTIONAL PURPOSES ONLY 3 GAMIFICATION AS BEHAVIORAL PSYCHOLOGY Conor Linehan, Ben Kirman, and Bryan Roche Those who advocate the benefits of a gamified or behavior, and introduce the field of behavioral psy- gameful world often advance a vision of the future in chology as an approach to understanding observed which all life and all work becomes increasingly behavior in gamified products. Behavior analysis is a playful, game-like, and rewarding; a future in which natural science branch of psychology and has been the world’s problems can be fixed by mass collabora- successful in developing principles and procedures tive game-like activities, which simultaneously stim- for engaging users in a wide range of training pro- ulate and delight the participants, while also grams and engendering behavior change, usually in providing useful services to science, charities, and an educational context (see Cooper, Heron, and industry (McGonagle 2011; Schell 2010b). Given the Heward 2006). Of the many fields within psychology, current popularity of game playing as a pastime and behavior analysis has devoted itself to precision in the success of many early examples of gamification the understanding of, and perhaps more importantly (e.g., von Ahn and Dabbish 2004; Khatib et al. 2011), the control of, human behavior. A consideration of it is difficult to not get caught up in this excitement. the principles generated by behavioral psychologists Notably, however, this excitement about gamifica- might be useful in explaining how specific game tion does not appear to have been generated by any design elements motivate and maintain user engage- specific new scientific or technological breakthrough. ment, and knowledge of the principles and processes Indeed, there seems to be very little novel—theoret- defined by behavioral psychologists can readily help ically or practically, from a sociological, psychologi- in the design of more useful and engaging gamified cal, or design perspective—about the gameful design experiences. Given the tremendous strength of of products, services, and activities (Deterding et al. empirical grounding, behavioral psychology is a 2011). proven, valid, useful, and interesting lens through We argue that in order fully to appreciate gamifi- which we can investigate gamification. cation as a design tool, it is necessary to understand To communicate the contribution of this chapter the spectrum of relevant social and psychological as clearly as possible, it is important to first provide processes acting on both the designer and consumer a definition for the phenomenon of gamification. O of such products, services, and activities. In this Deterding et al. (2011) suggest that the unique phe- chapter, we focus on one level of analysis, observed nomenon of interest when discussing gamification is Walz—The Gameful World PROPERTY OF THE MIT PRESS PROPERTY OF THE MIT PRESS FOR PROOFREADING, INDEXING, AND PROMOTIONAL PURPOSES ONLY FOR PROOFREADING, INDEXING, AND PROMOTIONAL PURPOSES ONLY 82 CONOR LINEHAN, BEN KIRMAN, AND BRYAN ROCHE “the use of game design elements in non-game con- design patterns) to the abstract (game design texts.” They identify that game design elements are methods). We specifically emphasize how the effects “elements that are found in most (but not necessarily of characteristic game design elements (i.e., points, all) games, readily associated with games, and found badges, leaderboards, time constraints, clear goals, to play a significant role in game play.” Examples of challenge) can be explained through principles of game design elements are provided, which vary in behavior investigated and understood by behavioral terms of abstraction from the concrete (interface psychologists for decades (see Skinner 1974). A Gameful Life Arguably, one of the catalysts for the current interest used to help people become better motivated, pro- in gamification was a keynote speech by Jesse Schell ductive, and healthy. Fascinatingly, the argument (2010b). In his talk, he outlined a future where game put forward by Skinner is strikingly similar to that mechanics are totally intertwined with our daily advanced by McGonigal and Schell. lives. Players receive game rewards for brushing It seems that in order to design the type of world their teeth, using public transport, eating certain envisioned by McGonigal and Schell, what is needed branded foods, and so on. In a similar vein, Jane is a deeper understanding not only of games and play McGonigal (2011) argues that through careful use of but also of the processes through which it is possible game design elements, people can become motivated to incentivize people to behave in an appropriate or to solve real-world problems, do more work, and productive manner. We need to understand how to better manage their health (e.g., SuperBetter.com). measure, understand, predict, and control people’s The core idea is that through modifying the environ- behavior. These are exactly the questions that behav- ment and giving suitably motivating rewards, the ioral psychologists have tried to answer through behavior of players can be changed for their own their research. The remaining sections of this chapter benefit (or that of their corporate masters). will introduce and discuss behaviorism as a philo- Notably, in 1948 the behavioral psychologist B. F. sophical approach to understanding the gamified Skinner released a science fiction novel called Walden world. This philosophy is the foundation for the prac- Two, which tells the tale of a utopian community tice of behavior analysis, and some interesting points whose members live together bound by a strict set of of overlap between this philosophy and the assump- rules defining how tasks are completed and rewards tions underlying gamification will be considered. granted in such a way to encourage positive behavior Subsequently, the very effective behavior control change and maximize motivation. For example, principles developed by behavioral psychologists will working less desirable jobs earns more “labour- be reviewed. Many of these can be readily imple- credits,” which means those workers get more free mented in gamified products and services and are time for leisure. Walden Two acts as an argument for already being applied by researchers in the field of O how the principles of behavioral psychology can be persuasive technology (Fogg 2002). We will provide Walz—The Gameful World PROPERTY OF THE MIT PRESS PROPERTY OF THE MIT PRESS FOR PROOFREADING, INDEXING, AND PROMOTIONAL PURPOSES ONLY FOR PROOFREADING, INDEXING, AND PROMOTIONAL PURPOSES ONLY GAMIFICATION AS BEHAVIORAL PSYCHOLOGY 83 an analysis of game playing from a behavioral psy- some broad concerns and criticisms often associated chology perspective and will conclude by offering with the behavioral approach. The History and Philosophy of Behavioral Science Behaviorism is an approach to psychology that that the individual has cash in his or her pocket, and attempts to understand all behavior, and all psycho- given that the individual has not eaten for some time, logical events, in terms of the interactions of an he or she is likely to put some money in the appropri- organism in and with its environment (Hayes 1993). ate vending machine slot. Put another way, the per- The work of a behavioral psychologist lies in investi- son’s history of reinforcement is coming into contact gating which specific features of the environment with the current environment, and it is this history lead to particular behaviors of interest and in under- combined with the previously established functions standing how to replicate and control those behav- of the various stimuli present (the vending machine, iors through control of the environment (Catania money) that explains the behavior (i.e., predicts and 1998). This approach is steadfast in its adherence to controls it). Of course, explanations of specific behav- environmental explanations of behavior because iors are usually more complex than this, but this these lend themselves most readily to the develop- example serves merely to outline the form that ment of means of controlling behavior (i.e., by behavioral explanations typically take. manipulating the environment appropriately). Importantly, a behavior analyst would not explain Behaviorists eschew explanations of behavior in the behavior of buying candy from a vending machine