1 FRENCH REVOLUTION-I BACKGROUND OF THE REVOLUTION Objectives: 1. To understand the nature of the Ancient Regime that existed in France on the eve of the French Revolution of 1789. 2. To have an insight into the political, social and economic conditions in France which ultimately led to the Revolution of 1789. 1.1. Introduction Towards the end of the eighteenth century, an uprising staged by the French people against the autocracy and aristocracy, which came to be known as the French Revolution, shook Europe. The French Revolution brought about a major transformation of the society and political system in France that lasted from 1789 to 1799. During the course of the Revolution, France was temporarily transformed from an absolute monarchy, where the king monopolized power, to a republic of theoretically free and equal citizens. The effects of the French Revolution were widespread, both inside and outside of France, and the Revolution ranks as one of the most important events in the history of Europe. During the ten years of the Revolution, France first transformed and then dismantled the Ancient Regime (Old Order), the political and social system that existed in France before 1789, and replaced it with a series of different governments. Although none of these governments lasted more than four years, the many initiatives they enacted permanently altered France‘s political system. These initiatives included the drafting of several bills of rights and constitutions, the establishment of legal equality among all citizens, experiments with representative democracy, the incorporation of the church into the state, and the reconstruction of state administration and the law code. Many of these changes were adopted elsewhere in Europe as well. Change was a matter of choice in some places, but in others it was imposed by the French army during the French Revolutionary Wars (1792-1797) and the Napoleonic Wars (1799-1815). To later generations of Europeans and non-Europeans, who sought to overturn their political and social systems, the French Revolution provided the most influential model of popular insurrection until the Russian Revolution of 1917. 2 1.2 Background of the French Revolution of 1789: Historians are not unanimous regarding the factors that brought about the Revolution of 1789 in France. To some extent at least, the Revolution broke out not because France was backward but because the country‘s economic and intellectual development was not matched by social and political change that was taking place in France. In the fixed order of the ancient regime most bourgeoisie were unable to exercise political and social influence in the state. King Louis XIV, by consolidating absolute monarchy had destroyed the roots of feudalism, yet outward feudal forms persisted and became increasingly burdensome. Lord Chesterfield described the conditions in France on the eve of the Revolution in the following words: ―A monarchy that was despotic and weak; a corrupt and worldly church; a nobility increasingly parasitical; a bankrupt exchequer; and irritated bourgeois; and oppressed peasantry; financial, administrative and economic anarchy, a nation strained and divided by misgovernment and mutual suspicion.‖ Such was the background that existed in France prior to the Revolution of 1789. 1.2.1 Political Background: 1.2.1. a. Ancient Regime (Old Order): In order to understand the factors that were responsible for the outbreak of the French Revolution in 1789, it is important to examine the conditions and institutions that existed in France prior to the Revolution. These conditions and institutions were collectively known as the Ancient Regime. Ancient Regime means Old Rule or Old Order in French language. In English the term refers primarily to the political and social system that was established in France under the Valois and Bourbon dynasties. More generally it means any regime which includes the defining features such as: a feudal system under the control of a powerful absolute monarchy supported by the doctrine of the Divine Right of Kings and the explicit consent of the established Church. This was how Europe had been organized since at least the eighth century. The term Ancient Regime is from The Age of Enlightenment (first appeared in print in English in 1794). Similar to other sweeping criticisms of the past, such as the term ‗Dark Ages‘, the concept of Ancient Regime was used as an expression of disapproval for the way things were done, and carried an implied approval of a ‗New Order‘. No one alive during the Ancient regime considered himself as living under an ‗Old Order‘. The term was created by Enlightenment era authors to promote a new cause and discredit the existing order. 3 As defined by the creators of the term, the Ancient Regime developed out of the French monarchy of the Middle Ages, and was swept away centuries later by the French Revolution of 1789. Europe‘s other Ancient Regimes had similar origins, but diverse ends; some gradually became constitutional monarchies, others were torn down by wars and revolutions. Power in the Ancient Regime relied on three pillars: the monarchy, the clergy and the aristocracy. Society was divided into three classes known as estates: the clergy, the nobility and the commoners. 1.2.1. b.Royal Absolutism: The politico-social system which existed in France throughout the rule of the Valois and Bourbon dynasties, was half way between feudalism and modernity. France was ruled by a powerful absolute monarch who relied on the doctrine of the Divine Right of Kings. The absolute monarchy had the explicit support of the established Church. This period in the history of France is often said to have begun with the French renaissance during the reign of Francis I (1515-1547), and to have reached its peak under Louis XIV (1643-1715). As the Italian Renaissance began to fade, France became the cultural capital of Europe. Eventually, however, financial difficulties and excesses of the rulers led to the decline and eventual collapse of the monarchy by the end of the eighteenth century. The system of Ancient Regime culminated in the monarch, the lofty and glittering head of the state. The king claimed to rule by the will of God and not by the consent of the people (Theory of the Divine Right of Kings). Thus, the kings claimed to be responsible to no one but God. The French Kings ruled in an absolute manner. They exercised unlimited powers. They were the chief legislators, executive and dispensers of justice. They imposed taxes and spent money as they pleased. They declared wars and made peace as they wished. They denied certain basic rights to their subjects. Heavy censorship denied freedom of speech and press. Arbitrary arrest, imprisonment, exile or even execution was the hallmarks of the royal absolutism in France. 1.2.1. c. Nature of the Bourbon Rulers: The Bourbon dynasty ruled France for about two centuries from 1589 to 1792. France attained the height of glory under Louis XIV. He was known as the ‗Grand Monarch‘ and ‗Sun King‘. He believed in the divine sanction of absolutism. He used to say ―I am the State.‖ Further he claimed: ―The sovereign authority is vested in my person, the legislative powers exist in myself alone…My people are one only with me; national rights and national interests are necessarily combined with my own and only rest in my hands.‖ In order to manifest his power and glory, Louis XIV led the nation in dangerous and expensive wars against his neighbours and undertook construction of magnificent buildings to beautify the capital city of Paris. Thus, his 4 expensive wars and lavish style of living weakened France financially as well as politically. More than any other construction of the age, the Palace of Versailles, built by Louis XIV embodied the spirit of absolute monarchy. The magnificent halls, ornate rooms and beautiful gardens surrounding the royal residence added to the grandeur of the Versailles Palace. The aristocracy of France assembled day and night to do homage to the great ruler of France. The court of Versailles which dazzled Europe was comprised of 18,000 people. Out of these 16,000 were attached to the personal service of the king and his family and 2,000 were the courtiers, the favoured guests and nobles. The royal stables contained 1900 horses and more than 200 carriages. In 1789, the total cost of the Versailles extravaganza was $ 20,000,000. Yet, Versailles which symbolized the glory of the Ancient Regime was also the mark of its decline. Its cost to the French nation was too much. Besides, it created a barrier between monarchy and its subjects. Louis XIV, the Grand Monarch left a legacy of financial bankruptcy for his successors. While on deathbed, he is said to have advised his successor Louis XV, his great grand son, in these words: ―My child,…endeavour to live at peace with your neighbours, do not imitate my fondness for war, not the exorbitant expenditure which I have incurred…Endeavour to relieve the people at the earliest possible moment and thus accomplish what unfortunately, I am unable to do myself.‖ Louis XV (1715-1774) succeeded his great grand father at the age of five. The first part of the long reign of 59 years falls into the period of Regency (1715-1723) during which period his great uncle, the Duke of Orleans ruled in his name. The confusion and disorder of the Regency was followed by almost two decades of orderly rule and material prosperity under the leadership of the aged Cardinal Fleury (1723-1743). From 1743 until his death in 1774, Louis XV tried to exercise direct control over the government which ultimately led to the instability of the monarchy.