SOIL EROSION IN KOHIMA DISTRICT , NAGALAND: A GEOGRAPHICAL ANALYSIS THESIS SUBMITTED TO NAGALAND UNIVERSITY IN PARTIAL FUFILLMENT OF REQUIREMENTS FOR THE DEGREE OF DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY IN GEOGRAPHY BY KENEIKHOTO YANO REGISTRATION NO. 483/12 Department of Geography School of Sciences Nagaland University Hqrs.: Lumami-798627 Nagaland 2017 Department of Geography School of Sciences (A Central University established by an Act of Parliament No.35 of 1989) (संसद वारा पारत अधनयम 1989, क्रमांक 35 के अंतरगत् थापत क य वशव् वयालय) Headquarters: Lumami, Dist: Zunheboto, (Nagaland), Pin Code-798 627 मयालयु : लमामीु , जहेबोटोु (नागालैड), िपन कोड – 798627 _______________________________________________________________________ DECLARATION BY THE CANDIDATE I, Mr. Keneikhoto Yano, hereby declare that the subject matter of this thesis is the research work done by me, that the contents of this thesis did not form basis of the award of any previous degree to me or to the best of my knowledge to anybody else, and that the thesis has not been submitted by me for any research degree in any other university/institute.S This is being submitted to Nagaland University for the award of the degree of Doctor of Philosophy in Geography. (KENEIKHOTO YANO) (Prof. T. LANUSOSANG) Supervisor (Prof. M.S.RAWAT) Head of Department Department of Geography School of Sciences (A Central University established by an Act of Parliament No.35 of 1989) (संसद वारा पारत अधनयम 1989, क्रमांक 35 के अंतरगत् थापत क य वशव् वयालय) Headquarters: Lumami, Dist: Zunheboto, (Nagaland), Pin Code-798 627 मयालयु : लमामीु , जहेबोटोु (नागालैड), िपन कोड – 798627 _______________________________________________________________________ CERTIFICATE This is to certify that the thesis entitled “Soil Erosion in Kohima District, Nagaland: A Geographical Analysis”, submitted to Nagaland University in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy (Ph.D.) in the Department of Geography, embodies the original research work carried out by Keneikhoto Yano, Registration Number 483/12, under my supervision and guidance. Further, I certify that no part of this thesis has been submitted anywhere for any other research degree. The assistance and help received during the course of study have been duly acknowledged. Place: Lumami (Prof. T. Lanusosang) Date: Supervisor Department of Geography School of Sciences (A Central University established by an Act of Parliament No.35 of 1989) (संसद वारा पारत अधनयम 1989, क्रमांक 35 के अंतरगत् थापत क य वशव् वयालय) Headquarters: Lumami, Dist: Zunheboto, (Nagaland), Pin Code-798 627 मयालयु : लमामीु , जहेबोटोु (नागालैड), िपन कोड – 798627 ________________________________________________________________________ CERTIFICATE This is to certify that the thesis entitled “Soil Erosion in Kohima District, Nagaland: A Geographical Analysis”, submitted to Nagaland University in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy (Ph.D.) in the Department of Geography, embodies the original research work carried out by Keneikhoto Yano, Registration Number 483/12, under my supervision and guidance. Further, I certify that no part of this thesis has been submitted anywhere for any other research degree. The assistance and help received during the course of study have been duly acknowledged. Place: Lumami (Prof. T. Lanusosang) Date: Supervisor CONTENTS Page No. ACKNOWLEDGEMENT i LIST OF TABLES vi LIST OF FIGURES vii LIST OF PLATES ix CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION 1-35 1.1 Definition and Terms of Erosion and Soil Erosion 1.2 Process of Soil Erosion 1.3 Soil Erosion: Global Context 1.4 Study Area: Kohima District 1.5 Statement of the Problem 1.6 Objectives 1.7 Hypothesis 1.8 Methodology 1.9 Review of Literature CHAPTER 2 PHYSICAL FRAMEWORK OF THE STUDY AREA 36-77 2.1 Kohima District: Study Area 2.2 Geomorphologic Characteristics 2.3 Geological Setting 2.4 Geological Formation 2.5 Climatic Condition 2.6 Drainage System 2.7 Soil Genesis and Characters 2.8 Land Resources and the People 2.9 Demographic Characteristics 2.10 Forest Resources 2.11 Agriculture Resources 2.12 Water Resources 2.13 Health Care Facilities 2.14 Transport and Connectivity CHAPTER 3 AGRICULTURE AND LAND USE PATTERN 78-100 3.1 Occupational Structure in Agriculture 3.2 Agricultural System 3.3 Agriculture and Productivity 3.4 Land Use and Land Cover 3.4.1 Village Land 3.4.2 Clan Land 3.4.3 Individual Land 3.5 Agriculture and Environment CHAPTER 4 ESTIMATION OF SOIL LOSS101-127 4.1 Universal Soil Loss Equation (USLE) 4.2 Remote Sensing and GIS in Soil Erosion Assessment 4.3 Soil Erosion Model 4.4 Revised Universal Soil Loss Equation (RUSLE) Calculation 4.5 Erosivity Indexof RUSLE 4.6 Flowchartof Methodology 4.7 Average Annual Soil Loss Estimation: KohimaDistrict CHAPTER 5 THE STATUS OF SOIL EROSION 128-163 5.1 Landslide Occurrences: Kohima District 5.2 Socio-Economic Factorsand its Impacton Soil 5.2.1Socio–Economic Effects of Soil Erosion: Global Scenario 5.2.2 Relationship of Forest and Soil 5.2.3 Land Use System 5.2.4 Deforestation 5.2.5 Stone Quarry 5.3 Land Use Policy and its Impact on Soil 5.3.1 Administrative Policy 5.3.2 Village Administration CHAPTER 6 SUMMARY AND CONCLUSION 164-174 6.1 Summary and Conclusion 6.2 Major Findings 6.3 Recommendation BIBLIOGRAPHY 175-206 PHOTO PLATES 207-224 APPENDIX 225-230 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT My deepest gratitude and praises to Almighty God for granting me good health and His unceasing blessings and faithfulness throughout my research work. I extend my heartfelt gratitude to my Supervisor, Prof. T. Lanusosang, for his profound interest, genuine dedication with invaluable advice, guidance and encouragement during my entire research period, not forgetting the timely encouragements, without which I would not have completed my work. I am thankful to the University Grants Commission for awarding me fellowship under Rajiv Gandhi National Fellowship without which it would not have been possible to complete my research. I also express my sincere thanks to Head, Department of Geography, Nagaland University, Lumami and all the teaching and non-teaching staff for their advice and support. My special thanks to Asst. Prof. Lily Zutso and Asst. Prof. AlenoDoulo, , Dept. of Geology, Kohima Science College, Jotsoma for their valuable information, advice and suggestions during my field visits. Special thanks to KhriezovoZutso for his encouragement and guidance throughout my works. I also wish to acknowledge staff in the departments such as library NU, Dept. of Economics and statistics, Kohima; Dept. of Soil and Water Conservation, Kohima, Dept. of Forest, Ecology, Environment and Wildlife, Kohima, Directorate of Geology and Mining, Nagaland, etc. for help and services rendered in providing the study materials. My sincere appreciation goes to all my fellow scholars and hostellers of Nagaland University, Lumami for their love, support and help rendered. Last but not the least I thank my family members for their continuous prayer, motivation, love, moral and financial support without which I could not have completed my research work. Dated: (KENEIKHOTO YANO) LIST OF TABLES 1.1 Global Extent of Soil Erosion 1.2 Estimated Annual Soil Erosion within Drainage Basins of Selected Rivers 2.1 Tertiary Succession: Kohima District 2.2 Density of Population(2011) 2.3 Population (1901-2011): Kohima District 2.4 Area under Forest, 2012-2013 2.5 Availability of Health Care Facilities: Kohima District 3.1 Distribution of Workers: Kohima District 3.2 Major Crops (Agriculture) 3.3 Other Crops (Horticulture) 4.1 Maximum likelihood report for landuse/land cover classification 4.2 Rainfall erosivity factor (MJ mm ha-1 h-1) 4.3 Crop Management Factor for Different Landuse/Landcover Classes 4.4 Soil loss Class 4.5 Average annual soil loss of the study area (Year wise) 5.1 Recorded Earthquake in the Past Few Years 5.2 Past landslides Recorded: Kohima District 5.3 Special Provision of Nagaland LIST OF FIGURES 1.1 Location Map: Kohima District Nagaland 2.1 Geomorphological Map: Kohima District 2.2 Geological Map: Kohima District 2.3 Average Rainfall, Temperature and Relative Humidity (2009-2013): Kohima District 2.4 Drainage Map: Kohima District 2.5 Soil Map: Kohima District 2.6 Decadal Population Variation: Kohima District 2.7 Population (1901-2011): Kohima District 2.8 Rural and Urban population (2011): Kohima District 3.1 Major crops: Kohima District (Hectare) 3.2 Major crops: Kohima District (Matric tons) 3.3 Major other items: Kohima District (Hectare) 3.4 Major other items: Kohima District (Tons) 3.5 Land use and Land Cover: Kohima District 4.1 Digital Elevation Map: Kohima District 4.2 False Colour Composite: Kohima District 4.3 Landuse/Landcover: Kohima District 4.4Soil Texture Triangle 4.5 Soil Map: Kohima District 4.6 Organic Matter Contain (in per cent) 4.7 Spatial Distribution of Soil Erodibility Factor: Kohima 4.8 Slope Map (in per Cent): Kohima District 4.9 Spatial Distribution of LS Factor: Kohima District 4.10 Crop Management Factor (C): Kohima District 4.11 Conservation Practice Factor (P): Kohima District 4.12 Spatial Distribution of Average Annual Soil Loss of Kohima District 5.1 Landslide Map of India 5.2 Meteorological Data (2009-2013) 5.3 Retaining Wall with Tiebacks and Buttress Beams. 5.4 Binding of Soil through Artificial Vegetation LIST OF PLATES 3.1 Jhum practice in hilly slope at Tseminyu 3.2 Rolling terrace field at Kigwema village 3.3 Tree planted along the bund of Wet terrace field to check mud slide in Southern Angami 3.4 Bamboo plantation along