Notes and References Abbreviations AAE Archives du Ministere des Alfaires Etrangeres, Paris: CPH Correspondance Politique, Haiti CCC Correspondance Consular et Commerciale PRO Public Record Office, London: Adm Admiralty FO Foreign Office USNA DS United States National Archives, Department of State, Washington DC INTRODUCTION 1. I am thinking of Gabriel Coulthard, whose book Race and Colour in Caribbean Literature contains excellent chapters on Haiti. 2. J. Michael Dash, Literature and Ideology in Haiti, 1915-1961. 3. Dawn Marshall, 'The Haitian Problem': Illegal Migration to the Bahamas; Mirlande H. Manigat, Haiti and Caricom. 4. E. K. Brathwaite, The Times Literary Supplement, 23 December 1983, p. 1425. 5. Eric E. Williams, From Columbus to Castro, p. 503. 6. Kortright Davis, Mission for Caribbean Change: Caribbean Development as Theological Enterprise, p. 29. 7. See for example the articles of Bissainthe, Bajeux and Parisot in A. Abbie et al., Les pretres noirs s'interrogent; Claude Soulfrant, 'Catholicism et negritude a l'heure du black power', Presence Africaine, N.S. 75, 1970, 'Un catholicisme de resignation', Social Compass, 17, 1970, 'La foi en Haiti', Parole et Mission, 55, mars 1971 and Une negritude socialiste; L. Hurbon, Dieu dans le vaudou hai"tien and Culture et Dictature en Haiti. 8. George L. Beckford (ed.), Caribbean Economy, p. v. 9. K. Davis, Missionfor Caribbean Change, p. 27, (my italics). 10. See below p. 22. II. Some of the problems are discussed in Vaughan A. Lewis (ed.), Size, Self­ Determination and International Relations: the Caribbean. 12. Dana G. Munro, Intervention and Dollar Diplomacy in the Caribbean: 1900-1921, and The United States and the Caribbean Republics, 1921-1933; Dexter Perkins, The United States and the Caribbean; Tad Szulc (ed.), The United States and the Caribbean; Jenny Pearce, Under the Eagle. 239 240 Notes and References to pp. 8-23 13. 'A Work of Combat: Mulatto Historians and the Haitian Past',joumal of lnterameri- can Studies, 16:1, 1974, pp. 15ff. 14. Leopold de Saussure, Psychologic de Ia colonisationfranfaise. 15. Lilyan Kesteloot, Les icrivains noirs de langue franfaise: naissance d'une littirature. 16. Hollis R. Lynch, Edward Wilmot Blyden: Pan-Negro Patriot, 1832-1912. 17. Edmund D. Cronin, Black Moses: the Story of Marcus Garv~y and the Universal Negro Improvement Association. 18. See Remy Bastien in H. Courlander and R. Bastien, Religion and Politics in Haiti, pp. 45ff. On Peralte and Batraville see Roger Gaillard, Les blancs dibarquent, vols 6 and 7. I have described a prayer book which was discovered on the body of Batraville in From Dessalines to Duvalier, p. 297, n. 36. 19. L. Goure and J. Weinkle, 'Cuba's New Dependency', Problems of Communism, March-April 1972; but see also F. Fitzgerald, 'The Direction of Cuban Socialism: a Critique of the Sovietization Thesis', in Susan Craig (ed.), Contemporary Caribbean: a Sociological Reader, 2, pp. 243ff. 20. Clive Thomas, 'State Capitalism in Guyana: an Assessment of Burnham's Co­ operative Socialist Republic', in Fitzroy Ambursley and R. Cohen (eds) Crisis in the Caribbean, pp. 27ff. 21. On the Haitian Revolution see C. L. R.James, Blackjacobins; the writings of Gerard M. Laurent, especially Quand les chaines volent en iclats ...; and David Geggus, Slavery, War and Revolution: the British Occupation of Saini-Domingue, 1793-1798. On the US occupation and the Haitian resistance, see Hans Schmidt, The United States Occupation of Haiti, 1915-1934, Kethly Millet, Les paysans ha!tiens et /'occupation amiricaine, 1915-1930; and the series of volumes by Roger Gaillard, Les blancs dibarquent. 22. Fitzroy Ambursley and Robin Cohen in Crisis in the Caribbean, p. 9. Though Ambursley fully recognises that the defeat of Michael Manley cannot be ascribed solely to the machinations of the CIA, ibid., p. 72. 23. Ibid., p. 204. Further evidence for the petty bourgeois nature of the regime was that Maurice Bishop allegedly owned an apartment block. 1 CASTE, CLASS AND COLOUR IN HAITI I. Morille P. Figaro, 'Contrition', Lejour, 19-29 mai 1967. 2. On Accau see below, pp 175f. On Price Mars see L. S. Senghor eta/., Timoignages sur Ia vie et /'oeuvre du Docteur jean Price Mars also, in a critical vein, R. Depestre 'Jean Price-Mars et le mythe de l'orphee nair ou les a ventures de Ia negritude', L 'Homme et Ia Sociiti, 7, 1968, pp. 171f, printed in revised form in Depestre Bonjour et adieu aIa negritude, pp. 43f. 3. 'Bulletin 57', L'Action Nationale, 6 mai 1946; see David Nicholls, 'Ideologies et mouvements politiques en Haiti', Annates, Economies, Sociitis, Civilisations, 30:4, 1975, pp. 654f. 4. M. L. E. Moreau de Saint-Mery, Description topographique, physique, civile, politique et historique de Ia partie franfaise de /'lie Saini-Domingue, I, pp. 86f. 5. Fouchard writes of the affranchis 'numeriquement parlant... cette classe se trouvait composee d'une large majorite noire', Les marrons de Ia Iiberti, p. 333. Fouchard, who Notes and References to pp. 23-9 241 is an apologist of the mulatto elite in Haiti, is keen to maintain this interpretation of the past in order to undermine the general association between class and colour. These assimilated maroons - 'reputes a.ffranchis sans l 'etre' as they were called - cannot legitimately be included with the a.ffranchis proper in colonial Saini­ Domingue, as their position was quite different and they had distinct interests. While the a.ffranchis were keen that the Code Noir be strictly enforced, these maroons were of course against such a policy. 6. I have attempted to show this in From Dessalines to Duvalier. 7. It would, however, be a mistake to regard Haitian peasants as congenitally apathetic, as 'des risignis', as Roger Riou does in his book Adieu La Tortue. See chapter 9 below. 8. See chapter 2 below. 9. A. B. Ardouin, Etudes sur l'histoire d'Halti suivies de la vie du giniralj.-M. Borgella, 6, pp. 45-6. 10. The Haitian People, ch. 3. Leyburn's book was an outstanding contribution to the understanding of Haiti and it was deservedly republished in 1966 with an excellent introduction by Sidney Mintz. Nevertheless many subsequent writers have rather uncritically adopted some of Leyburn's mistaken judgments. II. H. Courlander and R. Bastien, Religion and Politics in Haiti and David Nicholls 'Politics and Religion in Haiti', Canadian Journal of Political Science, 3:3, 1970, pp. 400f. For a brief discussion of voodoo see below pp. 212f. 12. I have discussed this controversy in 'A Work of Combat, Mulatto Historians and the Haitian Past',Journal of lnteramerican Studies, 16:1, 1974, pp. 15f. 13. J. Brown, The History and Present Condition of St Domingo, 2, p. 259; V. Schoelcher, Colonies itrangeres et Haiti, 2, p. 348. 14. Lepelletier de Saint-Remy, Saint-Domingue, I, p. 274. 15. Leyburn, The Haitian People andJ. Lobb 'Caste and Class in Haiti', American Journal of Sociology, 46:1, 1940, pp. 23f. This matter was discussed by Price Mars in De la prihistoire d'Afrique a l'histoire d'Halti, pp. 139f. Christian Beaulieu made an illumi­ nating contribution to the debate from a marxist standpoint in 'Caste et classe', Le Nouvelliste, 29 juillet 1942 where he wrote, /lest clair que ce pays n 'est pas soumis aun rigid systeme de castes, puisqu 'on peut y observer une certaine mobiliti sociale; mais il est non moins ivident qu'on ny trouve pas fa sociiti aclasses dans sa puriti classique, des conditions particulieres constituant encore des barrieres que riduisent singuterement [a mobiliti sociale de l'individu. This position was largely followed by Etienne Charlier in a number of his writings. 16. 0. C. Cox, Caste Class and Race. This is an important and interesting study, but there is, I think, no need to adopt such a narrow definition of the term 'caste'. A similar position is maintained on this question by L. Dumont in 'Caste, racisme et "stratification" ', Cahiers lnternationaux de Sociologic, no. 29, 1960, pp. 91f. I 7. Report of the President's Commission for the Study and Review of Conditions in the Republic of Haiti, p. 19. On the middle class in Haiti see C. Pressoir 'Etude sur Ia classe moyenne a Port-au-Prince', Revue de la Sociiti d'Histoire et de Giographie d'Halti, 21, 1950 pp. If; S. andJ. Comhaire Sylvain, 'Urban Stratification in Haiti', Social and Economic Studies, 8:2, 1959, pp. 179f.; M. de Young, 'Class Parameters in Haitian Society', Journal of lnteramerican Studies, 1:4, 1959, pp. 449f.; L. Paret-Limardo 'Les Classes moyennes en Haiti', in The Development of a Middle Class in Tropical and Sub-Tropical Countries; M. Sylvain Bouchereau, 'La classe moyenne en Haiti' in T. 242 Notes and Riferences to pp. 29-36 Crevenna, Materiales para el estudio de la clase media en Ia America Latina', pp. 67f.; R. Wingfield and V. J. Parenton, 'Class Structure and Class Conflict in Haitian Society', Social Forces, 43:3, 1965, pp. 338f. 18. A. C. Millspaugh, Haiti under American Control, 1915-30, p. 163. The principal Haitian writers concerned with this question at the end of the nineteenth century were Stenia Vincent, Moravia Morpeau, J. B. and J. C. Dorsainvil. 19. Seej.J. Doubout and U.Joly, Notes sur le diveloppement du movement syndical en Haiti; also]. B. Brutus 'Apen;u historique du mouvement syndical en Haiti', Rond Point, 7, mai 1963, pp. 6f. and other articles in this number of Rond Point. On development of new industries see 'An Observer', 'Dynastic Republicanism in Haiti', Political Quarterly, 44:1, 1973, pp. 77f.; more recently, Anthony Barbier, 'Etat, classes sociales et industrialisation dependante en Haiti, 1970-1980', Collectif Paroles, no. 23, mai/juin 1983, pp. 33f. 20.