Batwa, Gorillas and the Ruhija Road the Ruhija and Gorillas Batwa, Batwa, Gorillas and the Ruhija Road a relational perspective on controversies at Bwindi Impenetrable National Park, Uganda Christine Ampumuza Christine Christine Ampumuza Propositions 1. Passivity denotes presence, not absence, of agency. (this thesis) 2. To be out of relations, is to be out of existence. (this thesis) 3. Learning necessitates unlearning. 4. Scientific research co-creates the problems that it tries to solve. 5. The COVID-19 pandemic has been a burden to humans, but also a relief to our climate. 6. Activism keeps issues on the global or national agenda, but rarely translates into lasting solutions. Propositions belonging to the PhD thesis, entitled: Batwa, Gorillas, and the Ruhija road: a relational perspective on controversies at Bwindi Impenetrable National Park, Uganda Christine Ampumuza Wageningen, 26 May 2021 Batwa, Gorillas and the Ruhija Road: a relational perspective on controversies at Bwindi Impenetrable National Park, Uganda Christine Ampumuza Thesis Committee Promotor Prof. Dr V.R. van der Duim Personal Chair, Cultural Geography Group Wageningen University & Research Co-promotor Dr M. Duineveld Associate Professor, Cultural Geography Group Wageningen University & Research Other members Prof. Dr I. Visseren-Hamakers, Radboud University Nijmegen Prof. Dr E. Turnhout, Wageningen University & Research Prof. Dr G. Jóhannesson, University of Iceland, Reykjavík, Iceland Dr E. Rasch, Wageningen University & Research. This thesis was conducted under the auspices of the Wageningen School of Social Sciences Batwa, Gorillas and the Ruhija Road: a relational perspective on controversies at Bwindi Impenetrable National Park, Uganda Christine Ampumuza Thesis submitted in fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of doctor at Wageningen University by the authority of the Rector Magnificus Prof. Dr A.P.J. Mol in the presence of the Thesis Committee appointed by the Academic Board to be defended in public on Wednesday 26 May 2021 at 11.00 a.m. in the Aula Christine Ampumuza Batwa, Gorillas and the Ruhija Road: a relational perspective on controversies at Bwindi Impenetrable National Park, Uganda 127 pages PhD thesis, Wageningen University, Wageningen, the Netherlands (2021) With references, with summary in English ISBN: 978-94-6395-746-5 DOI: https://doi.org/10.18174/543289 Table of Contents Preface ................................................................................................................................... 5 Chapter 1 ................................................................................................................................ 7 General introduction to controversies at Bwindi ...................................................................... 7 1.1. Introduction to conservation of African landscapes ................................................... 8 1.2. Bwindi Impenetrable National Park ........................................................................... 9 1.3. Batwa, roads and gorilla habituation controversies at Bwindi .................................. 11 1.3.1. The Batwa controversy ............................................................................................ 11 1.3.2. The Gorilla habituation controversy ........................................................................... 12 1.3.4 Three controversies, three actors .............................................................................. 14 1.4. Actor Network Theory, relational agency, enactment and multiplicity ...................... 14 1.4.1. Relational agency ................................................................................................... 15 1.4.2. Enactment ............................................................................................................. 15 1.4.3. Multiplicity ............................................................................................................. 16 1.5. Research question .................................................................................................. 17 1.6. Methodology: Following the actors .......................................................................... 17 1.6.1. Positionality statement ............................................................................................ 18 Chapter 2: ............................................................................................................................. 23 The most marginalised people in Uganda? Alternative realities of Batwa at Bwindi Impenetrable National Park, Uganda ..................................................................................... 23 Abstract ................................................................................................................................ 24 2.1. Introduction ................................................................................................................... 25 2.2. Enacting agency: in/from discourses in/to practices ................................................... 30 2.2.1. Discursive agency ...................................................................................................... 31 2.3. Methods ...................................................................................................................... 32 2.4. Dominant Batwa narratives: Marginalised and victimised Batwa .................................. 33 2.4.1. Bio-ecological uniqueness ........................................................................................... 33 2.4.2. Primitive subjects ...................................................................................................... 34 2.4.3. Victims .................................................................................................................... 35 2.4.4. Vulnerable and poor subjects ...................................................................................... 36 2.5. The performative effects of the dominant marginalisation narratives ........................... 36 2.6. Counter-narratives: Alternative Batwa realities ........................................................... 37 2.6.1. Forest ecology experts ............................................................................................... 38 2.6.2. Tourism entrepreneurs ............................................................................................... 39 2.6.3. Community developers ............................................................................................... 40 2.6.4. Political activists ........................................................................................................ 41 2.7. Conclusion and discussion: Agency reduction, performative effects and situational agency ............................................................................................................................... 42 2.7.1. The performativity of agency reduction/marginalisation discourse ..................................... 42 2.7.2. Taking into account the Batwa’s multiple situational agency ............................................. 43 Chapter 3 .............................................................................................................................. 45 Gorilla habituation and the role of animal agency in conservation and tourism development at Bwindi, South Western Uganda ............................................................................................. 45 Abstract ................................................................................................................................ 46 3.1. Conservation, tourism and the Bwindi gorillas ............................................................. 47 3.1.1. Habituation of Bwindi gorillas ...................................................................................... 48 3.1.2. Towards a more than human understanding of wildlife/gorillas ......................................... 50 3.2. Animal agency: A relational perspective....................................................................... 51 3.3. Methods ...................................................................................................................... 54 3.4. Habituation revisited: Multiple gorilla relations ............................................................ 55 3.4.1. Gorillas–habituation scientists ..................................................................................... 55 3.4.2. Gorillas–rangers ........................................................................................................ 56 3.4.3. Gorillas–veterinary doctors ......................................................................................... 56 3.4.4. Gorillas–local human communities ............................................................................... 57 3.4.5. Gorillas–tourists ........................................................................................................ 58 3.4.6. Gorillas–gorillas ........................................................................................................ 60 3.5. The role of animal agency in conservation and tourism at Bwindi ................................. 61 3.6. Conclusion ................................................................................................................... 65 3.7. Implications for conservation and tourism development .............................................. 67 Chapter 4 .............................................................................................................................