Geri Lavrov / Photographer's Choice / Getty Images ! " Memory ! " Studying Memory ! " Building Memories: Encoding ! " Memory Storage ! " Retrieval: Getting Information Out ! " Forgetting ! " Memory Construction Errors ! " Improving Memory Studying Memory ! " An information-processing model Studying Memory ! " Memory ! " Persistence of learning over time through the encoding, storage, and retrieval of information ! " Information-processing models ! " Used to help us think about how the brain forms and retrieves memories ! " Encoding ! " Process of getting information into the memory system ! " Storage ! " Process of retaining encoded information over time ! " Retrieval ! " Process of getting information out of memory storage An Information-Processing Model ! " Atkinson and Shiffrin (1968): Three stages 1." We first record to-be-remembered information as a fleeting sensory memory. 2." From there, we process information into short-term memory, where we encode it through rehearsal. 3." Finally, information moves into long-term memory for later retrieval. Atkinson and Shiffrin’s classic three-step model helps us to think about how memories are processed, but today’s researchers recognize other ways long- term memories form. For example, some information slips into long-term memory via a “back door,” without our consciously attending to it (automatic processing). And so much active processing occurs in the short- term memory stage that many now prefer to call that stage working memory. A MODIFIED THREE-STAGE INFORMATION-PROCESSING MODEL OF MEMORY Information-Processing •" Working memory •" Processes important, focused information •" Makes sense of new input •" Links with long-term memory •" Uses a central executive (Baddeley) WORKING MEMORY Alan Baddeley’s (2002) model of working memory, simplified here, includes visual and auditory rehearsal of new information. Part of the brain functions like a manager, a central executive focusing attention and pulling information from long-term memory to help make sense of new information. What two new concepts update the classic Atkinson-Shiffrin three-stage information processing model? What are two basic functions of working memory? Building Memories: Encoding ! " Our two-track memory system ! " Automatic processing and implicit memories ! " Effortful processing and explicit memories Building Memories: Encoding ! " Our two-track memory system ! " Explicit memories (declarative memories) of conscious facts and experiences encoded through conscious, effortful processing ! " Implicit memories (nondeclarative memories)that form through automatic processes and bypass the conscious encoding track Building Memories: Encoding ! " Automatic processing and implicit memories ! " Implicit memories include automatic skills and classically conditioned associations ! " Information is automatically processed about ! "Space ! "Time ! "Frequency ! " Effortful processing and explicit memories ! " With experience and practice, explicit memories become automatic Sensory memory What is sensory memory? •" First stage in forming explicit memories •" Immediate, very brief recording of sensory TOTAL RECALL—BRIEFLY When information in the George Sperling (1960) flashed a memory system group of letters similar to this for one- •" Iconic memory: Picture- twentieth of a second, people could recall only about half the letters. But image memory when signaled to recall any one row •" Echoic memory: Sound immediately after the letters had memory disappeared, they could do so with near-perfect accuracy. Capacity of Short-Term and Working Memory ! " Short-term memory ! " Activated memory that holds a few items briefly (such as the seven digits of a phone number while dialing) before the information is stored or forgotten ! " Working memory ! " Newer understanding of short-term memory that stresses conscious, active processing of incoming auditory and visual-spatial information, and of information retrieved from long-term memory Capacity of Short-Term and Working Memory ! " Short-term memory ! " George Miller (1956) ! "Magical Number Seven: People can store about seven bits of information (give or take two) ! Baddeley and colleagues ( 1975) ! "Without distraction, about seven digits or about six letters or five words ! " Working memory ! " Capacity varies by age and distractions at the time of memory tasks SHORT-TERM MEMORY DECAY ! " Unless rehearsed, verbal information may be quickly forgotten (From Peterson & Peterson, 1959; see also Brown, 1958.) Building Memories: Encoding Effortful processing strategies ! " Chunking: Organizing items into familiar, manageable units; often occurs automatically ! " Mnemonics: Memory aids, especially techniques that use vivid imagery and (From Hintzman, 1978.) organizational devices ! " Peg-word system Building Memories: Encoding ! " Spaced study and self-assessment ! " Spacing effect: Encoding is more effective when it is spread over time ! "Distributed practice: Produces better long-term recall ! "Massive practice: Produces speedy short term learning and feelings of confidence ! " Repeated self-testing (testing effect) effect: Encoding is very effective Building Memories: Encoding ! " Making new information meaningful ! " Spaced practice is most effective when new information is meaningful ! Ebbinghaus ! " Estimated that, compared with learning nonsense material, learning meaningful material required one- tenth the effort Which strategies are better for long term retention: cramming and rereading material, or spreading out learning over time and repeatedly testing yourself? Memory Storage ! " Retaining information in the brain ! " Synaptic changes Memory Storage: Retaining Information in the Brain ! " Past research ! " Whole past is contained in memory—waiting to be relived ! " Newer findings ! " Flashbacks during surgery are new creations of a stressed brain ! " Information is not stored in a single, specific spot ! " Perception, language, emotions and more require brain networks Explicit- Memory System: Hippocampus and Frontal Lobes ! " The brain registers and temporarily stores event aspects in the hippocampus ! " Memories then migrate for storage in memory consolidation process Roger Harris / Science Source ! " Right and left frontal lobes store different information THE HIPPOCAMPUS Explicit ! " The hippocampus and the memories for facts and episodes are brain cortex display processed in the hippocampus and fed rhythmic patterns of to other brain regions for storage. activity during sleep Retaining Information in the Brain ! " Implicit memory system: Cerebellum and basal ganglia ! " The cerebellum plays an important role in forming and storing memories created by classical conditioning ! " Memories of physical skills are also implicit memories ! " Basal ganglia help form memories for these skills ! " Infantile amnesia ! " Conscious memory of the first three years is blank ! " Command of language and a well-developed hippocampus are needed Review Key Memory Structures in the Brain Frontal lobes and hippocampus: explicit memory formation Cerebellum and basal ganglia: implicit memory formation Amygdala: emotion-related memory formation Which parts of the brain are important for implicit memory processing, and which parts play a key role in explicit memory processing? Your friend has experienced brain damage in an accident. He can’t remember anything told to him during a conversation. What’s going on here? Retaining Information in the Brain ! " Excitement or stress trigger hormone production and provoke the amygdala to engage memory ! " Emotions often persist with or without conscious awareness ! " Flashback memories occur via emotion-triggered hormonal changes and rehearsal Synaptic Changes ! " Long-term potentiation (LTP) ! " Increase in a synapse’s firing potential ! " After LTP, the brain will not erase memories ! " Believed to be a neural basis for learning and memory ! Kandel and Schwartz (1982) ! " Pinpointed changes in sea slugs’ neural connections ! " With learning more serotonin is released and cell efficiency increased—number of synapses increase Our Two Memory Systems Which brain area responds to stress hormones by helping to create stronger memories? The neural basis for learning and memory, found at the synapses in the brain’s memory connections, results from brief, rapid stimulation. It is called ________. Retrieval: Getting Information Out ! " Measuring retention ! " Retrieval cues Retrieval: Getting Information Out ! " Three types of evidence indicate memory retention ! " Recall ! " Recognition ! " Relearning EBBINGHAUS’ RETENTION CURVE ! " The more times Ebbinghaus practiced a list of nonsense syllables on day 1, the less practice he needed to relearn it on day 2 ! " Speed of relearning is one way to measure whether something was learned and retained (From Baddeley, 1982.) Multiple-choice questions test our a." recall. c. relearning. b." recognition. d. sensory memory. Fill-in-the blank questions test our ________. If you want to be sure to remember what you’re learning for an upcoming test, would it be better to use recall or recognition to check your memory? Why? Retrieval: Getting Information Out ! " Memory retrieval ! " Memories are held in storage by a web of associations ! " Retrieval cues serve as anchor points for pathways to memories suspended in this web ! " Priming ! " Activation, often unconsciously, of particular associations in memory Retrieval Cues PRIMING—AWAKENING ASSOCIATIONS After seeing or hearing rabbit, we are later more likely to spell the spoken