Examining the role of community engagement in nature-based solutions Thesis submitted in accordance with the requirements of the University of Liverpool for the degree of Master of Philosophy by Sophie Preston April 2020 i Table of Contents Acknowledgements ............................................................................................................... vi Abstract................................................................................................................................ vii Abbreviations ...................................................................................................................... viii 1 Chapter 1: Introduction................................................................................................... 1 1.1 Problem framing ..................................................................................................... 1 1.2 Community engagement with NBS ......................................................................... 3 1.3 Approach ................................................................................................................ 4 1.4 EKLIPSE assessment framework outline ................................................................ 6 1.5 Socioeconomic context ........................................................................................... 9 1.6 Austerity and Liverpool green space ..................................................................... 10 2 Chapter 2: Literature Review ........................................................................................ 14 2.1 Introduction to the Literature Review ..................................................................... 14 2.2 Development of the concept of NBS ..................................................................... 14 2.3 Challenges to mainstreaming NBS ....................................................................... 20 2.4 Governance .......................................................................................................... 24 2.5 Good governance ................................................................................................. 26 2.6 Governance of NBS .............................................................................................. 28 2.7 Public participation history .................................................................................... 30 2.8 Collaborative governance: facilitating co-creation in NBS ..................................... 30 2.9 ‘Good governance’ and citizens as a key stakeholder ........................................... 33 2.9.1 Definition ........................................................................................................ 33 2.9.2 Public participation in environmental governance: 20th century – present day34 2.9.3 Aarhus Convention 1998 ............................................................................... 35 2.10 Arnstein’s Ladder: discourses of power in participation literature .......................... 36 2.10.1 Empowerment ................................................................................................ 38 2.11 Benefits of participation in NBS ............................................................................. 38 2.11.1 Knowledge co-production and co-creation ..................................................... 38 2.11.2 Trust .............................................................................................................. 39 2.11.3 Knowledge co-production and social learning ................................................ 39 2.11.4 Connection to nature and urban place-making ............................................... 40 2.11.5 Opportunities to learn about the environment................................................. 41 2.11.6 NBS policy support ........................................................................................ 41 2.11.7 Environmental stewardship ............................................................................ 41 2.12 Examples of collaboration with citizens in NBS ..................................................... 42 2.12.1 Co-creation and knowledge co-production in NBS projects ............................ 42 2.12.2 Trust .............................................................................................................. 43 ii 2.12.3 Environmental education and connection to nature ........................................ 44 2.13 Critique of participation: trade offs and barriers to participation ............................. 44 2.13.1 Arnstein’s Ladder critique............................................................................... 45 2.13.2 Who participates? .......................................................................................... 46 2.14 Summary .............................................................................................................. 47 3 Chapter 3: Methodology ............................................................................................... 48 3.1 Introduction to the methodology ............................................................................ 48 3.2 Epistemelogical and philosophical framework ....................................................... 49 3.3 Research aims ...................................................................................................... 50 3.4 Case study overview ............................................................................................. 51 3.5 Description of URBAN Green UP Sub-Demo Areas .............................................. 52 3.6 Layer methodology ............................................................................................... 55 3.7 Qualtitative research methods description ............................................................ 59 3.7.1 Literature review ............................................................................................ 59 3.7.2 Policy document analysis ............................................................................... 60 3.7.3 Semi-structured interviews ............................................................................. 62 3.7.4 Participant observation .................................................................................. 63 3.7.5 Workshops ..................................................................................................... 64 3.7.6 Questionnaires based on workshops ............................................................. 73 3.7.7 Workshop data analysis ................................................................................. 74 3.8 Limitations of the methodology.............................................................................. 74 3.9 Summary .............................................................................................................. 75 4 Chapter 4: Results ....................................................................................................... 77 4.1 Introduction to Layer 2: Policy document analysis ................................................. 77 4.1.1 Existing NBS and NBS policy context ............................................................ 77 4.1.2 Socio-economic context and its implications for NBS policy ........................... 79 4.1.3 URBAN GreenUP potential outcomes relating to community engagement ..... 80 4.1.4 Political support ............................................................................................. 81 4.1.5 Barriers to engagement with NBS .................................................................. 81 4.1.6 Integration of citizen engagement into monitoring .......................................... 82 4.2 Summary .............................................................................................................. 83 4.3 Layer 3: Interviews ................................................................................................ 84 4.4 Introduction ........................................................................................................... 84 4.4.1 Role of different stakeholder groups in URBAN GreenUP .............................. 85 4.4.2 Methods of engaging the public ..................................................................... 87 4.4.3 Benefits of community engagement with URBAN GreenUP ........................... 88 4.4.4 NBS policy ..................................................................................................... 91 4.4.5 Limitations of community engagement in URBAN GreenUP .......................... 92 iii 4.4.6 Austerity ......................................................................................................... 96 4.5 Summary .............................................................................................................. 96 4.6 Layer 4: Citizen Workshops .................................................................................. 98 4.7 Introduction ........................................................................................................... 98 4.8 Layer 4, Workshop 1: Citizen science workshop ................................................... 98 4.8.1 Description of workshop activities .................................................................. 99 4.8.2 Pre-workshop questionnaire results ............................................................... 99 4.8.3 Participant profile ..........................................................................................