Ensembles working towards performance: Emerging coordination and interactions in self-organised groups By: Nicola Pennill A thesis submitted in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy The University of Sheffield Faculty of Arts and Humanities Department of Music June 2019 i Acknowledgements I would of course like to thank my supervisory team. Renee Timmers Catherine Laws, and Dermot Breslin been incredible in so many ways, and have each helped made the experience of research extraordinary. I count myself very fortunate to have been part of the WRoCAH network on Expressive Nonverbal Communication in Ensemble Performance. As well as the doctoral studentship award which made the PhD possible, it enabled me to be part of a wonderful team of people, who were an important source of ideas and encouragement throughout. Thanks also, therefore, go to Helena Daffern, Freya Bailes, Luke Windsor and Guy Brown, and to fellow students Ryan Kirkbride and Sara D’Amario, with whom it was such a joy to share my PhD experience. A special extra thank you must also go to Sara for the work we did together, it was a really important part of my research, and I will always value our friendship. There are many more people who have helped me along the way. The WRoCAH team, especially Caryn and Clare, took great pains to ensure the PhD was positive and productive at every stage. Thanks also to fellow students at The University of Sheffield who in different ways and at different times have been a great source of support, especially Shen, Henrique, Jonathan, Ioanna, Tim, Kate, and Caroline. Thanks also go to some very special friends. First, Lindsey, who truly went above and beyond what I could have ever expected to provide the most amazing practical help at the perfect time. Michelle, as always, was a constant source of inspiration and energy. This research was motivated by my love of group music-making, so I would like to thank the musicians I have played and collaborated with, who made this research possible, and who brought the ideas to life. Thanks therefore go the musicians who participated in this study, especially the singers who gave their time so willingly, and the members of the Australian Chamber Orchestra who made me so welcome during my unforgettable time with them in Sydney. I am especially grateful to Alistair and other fellow members of the Equinox Saxophone Ensemble for keeping me connected to the joy of being part of an ensemble. Finally, thanks go to my wonderful family – to my Mum and Dad whose faith in me has been so important when I doubted myself; and to Jo, Steve, Erin, ii Georgia, and Jamie, for reminding me what life is really all about. A final, special thank you must go to Andrew, who has patiently encouraged and supported me in what has at times seemed like a never-ending undertaking, and that has meant the world to me. Supervisors: Dr Renee Timmers, Department of Music, The University of Sheffield Dr Catherine Laws, Department of Music, the University of York Dr Dermot Breslin, School of Management, The University of Sheffield This work was supported by The University of Sheffield through the White Rose College of Arts and Humanities (WRoCAH). This research was conducted as part of the WRoCAH network on Expressive Nonverbal Communication in Ensemble Performance. As such, I had the privileGe of workinG with fellow network members in the Universities of Leeds and York, as well as The University of Sheffield. iii Abstract Background For small ensembles, preparing for ensemble performance is often achieved through a framework of rehearsals and performance goals. The ways that groups work together varies widely, but generally involves the concurrent evolution of social and task behaviours. Time as factor within and across a series of ensemble rehearsals has not been extensively studied. Research on organisations increasingly recognises the value of studying groups as dynamic, emergent entities. As well as the specific musical tasks and processes involved, this research takes a broader perspective, incorporating investigations of moment-by-moment verbal interactions between group members, and the way the explicit and implicit communication processes evolve over time. Aims This research aimed to address the central question of how behavioural interactions in small ensembles emerge and change over time. It aimed to investigate the ways that ensembles work together in rehearsal, in particular as a way of preparing for performance. The key theoretical perspectives on which this research is based are concerned with processes of coordination in small groups, in which the ensemble is viewed as a dynamic, self-managed collective. Method This was a mixed methods study including a questionnaire study, quantitative measures of verbal interactions, and qualitative analysis of participant experiences and perceptions. A background survey on rehearsal methods was conducted with small ensembles (< 12 members), along with two longitudinal case studies of newly formed a cappella vocal quintets. Rehearsals were video-recorded in the field (Case 1) and in a laboratory setting (Case 2) over a three-month period. Verbal interactions were captured, and the rehearsal utterances were time-stamped and coded. Behaviours were analysed using the software Theme (Patternvision Ltd) to identify recurrent temporal interaction patterns (‘T-patterns). In Case 2, further aspects were incorporated – two contrasting pieces were provided for rehearsals, and musical and verbal interactions were explored. Finally, a qualitative study combined interview, iv observation and visual methods explored experiences from participants of both case studies. Results The emergence of interactions, implicit communication and rehearsal activities were subject to a series of transitional changes triggered by exogenous factors, including approaching deadlines and social familiarity. Survey findings showed differences in rehearsal structure at different stages of preparation, but also commonalities across a range of types and sizes of ensembles. In the case studies, patterns in behaviour were evident at two main levels of analysis – emergent, inter- individual interactions ‘in the moment’, and in progressions through phases over a series of rehearsals. Verbal interaction patterns contributed were evident from first encounters onwards; patterns appeared very early and increased in complexity over time, as implicit communication modes became more established. Three phases were identified – an initial exploration phase where social and task familiarity were established, a transition phase where differences were surfaced and resolved, and a final integration phase in which a shared plan for performance was realised. The findings also showed that over time, implicit coordination increased and explicit coordination modes decreased. A new model of ensemble processes was proposed, in which the emergent interactions and larger-scale transitional phases are combined. Implications This research provided a new perspective on collaboration in music ensembles. It offered implications for further research on small group processes and their emergence over time, and for music ensemble performers and teachers seeking to reflect on practice. In describing these processes and their predictable ‘transition’ points, the metaphor of a river was used as a powerful image of change and renewal. It recognised ways that small groups, including music ensembles, need to balance paradoxical forces for predictability and structure with creativity and sharing of ideas. It also contributed to methods, both in its longitudinal design and the combination of approaches to investigation. Finally, the thesis highlighted further possibilities for interdisciplinary research in self-organised music ensembles and small group research. v List of Tables Table 2.1 Levels of structure, and areas of consideration identified in the study of collaboration and practice techniques in chamber ensemble rehearsals (reproduced from King, 2004, p.12) .................................................................. 22 Table 2.2 Three four-phased development models of teams ..................................... 46 Table 3.1 Dimensions that require attention when learning a new piece of music for performance (reproduced from Chaffin & Imreh, 2002, p. 344). ...................... 58 Table 3.2 Mix of methods used in the thesis ............................................................. 62 Table 3.3 Main methods of investigation of explicit and implicit coordination in case studies ................................................................................................................ 66 Table 3.4 Coding scheme for musical tasks in rehearsal (based on Chaffin et al., 2002; Ginsborg et al., 2006) .............................................................................. 67 Table 3.5 Behaviour Analysis (BA) coding scheme (Farley, Evison, Rackham, Nicolson, & Dawson, 2018) .............................................................................. 69 Table 3.6 Summary of literature gaps, research questions and methods ................... 79 Table 4.1 Ensemble type and size (N=129) ............................................................... 83 Table 4.2 Frequencies: Professional status and duration of groups’ existence (N=129) .............................................................................................................. 84 Table 4.3 Survey structure (see Appendix B for full