THE ETHNOBOTANY OF THE SEMELAI COMMUNITY AT TASEK BERA, PAHANG, MALAYSIA: AN ETHNOGRAPHIC APPROACH FOR RE-SETTLEMENT Sapura Mohamad Thesis submitted for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy School of Architecture, Landscape Architecture and Urban Design July 2010 P a g e | 10 PART I: GENERAL OVERVIEW CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION 1.0 Research Background Indigenous people, plants and their environment throughout the world have been threatened and challenged in many ways. Development seems to reduce these associations amongst humans, plants and the environment. Development has increasingly entered into spaces and territories previously used by Indigenous peoples for various purposes throughout the world. Obviously, the level of dependency of Indigenous people upon the forest or environment they live within also has been reduced and degraded. The issues of displacement, re-settlement or regroupment of the Indigenous people in the world are mostly associated with government major developments such as dams, housing and industrial projects, as well as agricultural land development. Twentieth century witness more people were involuntarily displaced than ever before, not only by war and natural disasters but due to profit making (M. Cernea, et al., 2009, pp. 263-265). The non-material impacts of the displacement scenario are greater on women, children and elderly in deeper way as compared to man (Downing & Garcia-Downing, n.d.) As discussed and elaborated upon further in the thesis, Scudder (1993) , Evrard and Goudineau (2004) are among the earliest resettlement scholars whom have contributed to deveoping a valuable international insight on involuntary population displacement and resettlement policies and activities that provides indepth reviews of resettlement policies and events in developing countries especially in South East Asian countries. Development-induced displacement significantly caused environmental, social and economic loses to the inhabitants due to unacceptable changes forced upon them (Price, 2009, pp. 267-268; Weaver, 2002). This research provides an international precedent, despite being ignored historically, providing a valuable international model for ethnographic-informed and ethnobotanical analyses of involuntary resettlement policies and activities (M. M. Cernea, 2009; Evrard & Goudineau, 2004). The paradigm explored in this dissertation includes involves anthropological experience and knowledge which could better help address these environmental and social issues which also includes training in applied anthropology and actively involves policy makers and the public emphasizing the value of long-term studies (Weaver, 2002). P a g e | 11 Ddisplacement caused by development must protect the livelihood of the people involved where remedies need to be identified and recommended. It is important to increase the awareness of the unacceptable consequences of displacement among the government and public (M. M. Cernea, 2009, pp. 263-265). Recently, the International Network on Displacement and Resettlement (INDR), led by Scudder, together with the International Accountabiity Project and the Housing and Land Rights Network have released a list of their initiatives in governing this issue, which includes minimizing displacement, ensuring displaced persons are project beneficiaries, inclusion of individuals who lose their livelihoods arising from the impact of resettlement projects, full risk assessment and livelihood restoration measures, providing information and training about rights and processes options by a third party prior to negotiations and the strengthening of free, prior and informed consents in compliance with international standards (Anonymous, 2010). In the Malaysian context, national development has had a determining impact on the traditional habitat and lifestyles of the Orang Asli, the Indigenous peoples of Peninsular Malaysia (Rambo, 1979, p. 15). Pressure from development has caused large-scale and rapid deforestation as well as damage to natural ecosystems, biodiversity loss and extinctions of genetic resources that are valuable to the Orang Asli as being integral to their habitat and resources for living. Over the last half-century, re-settlement or re-groupment programs in Malaysia have been constantly proposed and intended to exchange the Orang Asli original territories or lands with development projects (M. T. Salleh, 1990). The Orang Asli have been forced to accept development as other non- Indigenous people in the world have. As a result, the Orang Asli have slowly abandoned their traditional lifestyles, which were seen as „uncivilised‟ by government officials (M. T. Salleh, 1990). An example of this cultural loss is the Babagon Dam project, which involves the Kadazandusuns people in Sabah. This project has jeopardised the sustainability of the Indigenous identity, culture, social system and political structure of these peoples due to their movement or re-settlement from their traditional habitats (Lin, 2003). In addition, the Kadazandusuns can no longer rely or are less dependent upon their traditional resources and knowledge base due to inaccessibility of the resources at their new settlements. These adaptations have decreased their dependency on the natural environment and are leading to an eventual reduction of Indigenous knowledge and practices of the Kadazandusuns (Lin, 2003). They are also being exposed to modern lifestyles that were introduced to them at their new re-settlement areas. P a g e | 12 Re-settlements have brought the Orang Asli into contact with „civilisation‟ or modernisation, which has threatened their Indigenous culture. This displacement and development has not allowed for the continuation of the association existing between the Orang Asli and their environment. Their new settlements have not been designed or planned to suit their needs in order to sustain the traditional practices. One reason may be that government planners lack an appreciation of the documented information on Indigenous peoples traditional living needs. According to Arshad and Ahmad (2004), the reduction of natural resources and environments eventually will reduce Indigenous people‟s plant use and dependency upon forest resources which will thereupon affect the continuity of traditional knowledge through generations (Arshad & Ahmad, 2004). The erosion of traditional knowledge amongst the youth in the Orang Asli communities is now widespread (M. T. Salleh, 1990). There is a fear that if this situation is prolonged for another generation or two, we might totally loose the knowledge of the Indigenous peoples of the world. In regard to these issues, the involvement of Indigenous people in planning and development might help to sustain their traditional way of living. In addition, they may not be aware that their Indigenous knowledge is significantly important and valuable for conservation goals. The involvement of local people in the planning stage in any development might help to sustain the development project for these people to be involved or to participate. Therefore, there is an urgent need for a new solution that can be adopted in the current practice of Malaysian re-settlement, which considers the traditional and Indigenous culture of the people. As argued, it is vital that scholarly endeavours and the initiation of new knowledge be used to encourage the development of practical applications for the advancement and improvement of the quality of life. Both the understanding of human settlements and human culture are needed and archaeologists and anthropologists alone cannot do that. This understanding is about settlement patterns interpretations and their interrelationships with other cultures. By understanding this culture, we can better plan culturally and ecologically relevant living environments for them to sustain their Indigenous practices in a transformed landscape. Landscape research has attracted other multi- discplinary scholars as an approach to gain reasonable comprehension of human culture (Sahlqvist, 2001). Landscape architects have recognised their role as stewards of the land, which involves planning and creating better places for living. Landscape architects and landscape planners, the shapers of environments, are responsible for keeping the habitat habitable for human survival. In P a g e | 13 planning and designing spaces for living, cultural aspects of human lifestyles are important features that need attention. Lifestyles are the most useful criterion for defining groups which determine patterns of human settlements and built environments (Rappaport, 1979). As remarked by Heidegger (1958, p.19), „place places man in such a way that it reveals the external bonds of his existence and at the same time the depths of his freedom and reality‟ (Relph, 1976). These aspects of human living are important because humans respond differently to their culture which encompasses landscape elements and arrangements and also interferences based upon the current situation, previous experiences and knowledge backgrounds (Kaplan, 1985). The cultural landscape, which is a human- modified environment for living, should include physical and spiritual aspects of relationships between people and their environment to achieve optimal ecological sustainability as well as successful solutions of spatial and temporal problems of land use and management (Glikson, 1961; Simonds, 1961). The cultural landscape of Indigenous peoples is shaped by their lifestyles. Indigenous peoples in the world are often still using