View metadata, citation and similar papers at core.ac.uk brought to you by CORE provided by University of Birmingham Research Archive, E-theses Repository A DISTRUST OF TRADITION: THE STUDY, PERFORMANCE AND RECEPTION OF SHAKESPEARE IN ENGLAND IN A CONTEXT OF SOCIAL, POLITICAL AND TECHNOLOGICAL CHANGE, 1919-1939 by DAVID ARTHUR HILL A thesis submitted to The University of Birmingham for the degree of MASTER OF LETTERS The Shakespeare Institute Department of English The University of Birmingham September 2011 1 University of Birmingham Research Archive e-theses repository This unpublished thesis/dissertation is copyright of the author and/or third parties. The intellectual property rights of the author or third parties in respect of this work are as defined by The Copyright Designs and Patents Act 1988 or as modified by any successor legislation. Any use made of information contained in this thesis/dissertation must be in accordance with that legislation and must be properly acknowledged. Further distribution or reproduction in any format is prohibited without the permission of the copyright holder. ABSTRACT This thesis proposes that Shakespeare’s cultural authority was established in England by the end of the nineteenth century, but was challenged between the two World Wars of the twentieth century by the changing cultural, social and political circumstances generated by new artistic and cultural movements, and by an unstable post-war political and social environment. It is argued that the study, performance and reception of Shakespeare was affected by changes in critical approaches to his works, attitudes to performance on stage, and varying approaches of the new media of talking pictures and radio. The thesis puts Shakespeare into the context of a changing society by examining the political and social circumstances and the artistic and cultural influences which obtained during the period. There follows an examination of the attitudes and deliberations of the emerging factions which were to dominate this twenty-year period of Shakespeare criticism. Acknowledging other actions and influences, a study is made of the growing importance of the study of English and the effects of this upon the reception and consumption of Shakespeare. Shakespeare in performance on stage, on the radio and on film is examined in the light of the foregoing, and threats and opportunities are evaluated. 2 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS In addition to a rigorous and disciplined approach to study, the Director and Fellows of the Shakespeare Institute also provided friendship and encouragement during my time at that excellent place of learning. I am indebted to Professor Kate McLuskie, Dr. Jaq Bessell, Dr. Catherine Alexander and to Dr. Martin Wiggins whose lectures on Shakespeare criticism during my Master of Arts year inspired this thesis. My studies were made easier and happier by the continuous help and advice, pleasantly given by Kate Welch and Karin Brown of the Shakespeare Institute Library. I also received crucial help from Rebecca White and Juliet Creese of the administrative staff of the Institute. The many students whom I got to know during my extended time at the Institute were a source of inspiration and friendship, and are too numerous to name individually. Kathleen Bradley has been particularly supportive and a good friend. To Philip Butler, of York, an enthusiastic supporter of my efforts, I am indebted for his reading and thoughtful criticism of some chapters of the thesis. My greatest acknowledgement is to my wife, Una, whose patience and unflagging help and support has been both humbling and touching. She has spent many hours reading the text, as well as enduring my obsession with it. I could not have completed the thesis without her. 3 CONTENTS Introduction 1 The Commentators: Arguments and Acknowledgements 4 Halpern and Modernism 5 Mulhern and Scrutiny 7 Baldick and Criticism 9 Shakespeare and the Changing Times 10 The Stage 17 Radio 20 Film 21 Thesis Structure 21 Summary 29 Chapter One. The Times and the Manners: Shakespeare and the new 31 Political, Social and Cultural Environment The Post-War Environment 33 New Technologies and New Markets 34 A New Society 36 Cultural Influences 40 Shakespeare and the New Society 45 Other Influences 49 The Press 52 Summary 54 Chapter Two. Visions and Revisions: The Critical Perspective 56 Disintegration 64 Interpretation and the Modern Way 71 Modernism and New Criticism 75 Eliot and Criterion 79 Leavis and Scrutiny 81 Richards et al 84 Bloomsbury 87 Science. 89 Chapter Three. The English Language, Education and Shakespeare 95 Introduction and Background 95 The British Empire Shakespeare Society, The English Association 97 and the English-Speaking Union. The Newbolt Report 102 Shakespeare and Newbolt 106 Parliament 117 Universities 120 Editions 124 4 Chapter Four. Performance 131 The Stage 132 Shakespeare, Relevance and Fashion 136 The Old Vic 143 The Open Air Theatre 144 Other Venues 147 Radio 152 Film 160 Rheinhardt and Dieterle’s A Midsummer Night’s Dream 163 Other ‘Shakespeares’ on Film 167 End Note 168 Examination and Conclusion 171 Overview 171 Study and Criticism 174 Performance 181 End Note 187 5 CONTENTS Introduction 1 The Commentators: Arguments and Acknowledgements 4 Halpern and Modernism 5 Mulhern and Scrutiny 7 Baldick and Criticism 9 Shakespeare and the Changing Times 10 The Stage 17 Radio 20 Film 21 Thesis Structure 21 Summary 29 Chapter One. The Times and the Manners: Shakespeare and the new 31 Political, Social and Cultural Environment The Post-War Environment 33 New Technologies and New Markets 34 A New Society 36 Cultural Influences 40 Shakespeare and the New Society 45 Other Influences 49 The Press 52 Summary 54 Chapter Two. Visions and Revisions: The Critical Perspective 56 Disintegration 64 Interpretation and the Modern Way 71 Modernism and New Criticism 75 Eliot and Criterion 79 Leavis and Scrutiny 81 Richards et al 84 Bloomsbury 87 Science. 89 Chapter Three. The English Language, Education and Shakespeare 95 Introduction and Background 95 The British Empire Shakespeare Society, The English Association 97 and the English-Speaking Union. The Newbolt Report 102 Shakespeare and Newbolt 106 Parliament 117 Universities 120 Editions 124 6 Chapter Four. Performance 131 The Stage 132 Shakespeare, Relevance and Fashion 136 The Old Vic 143 The Open Air Theatre 144 Other Venues 147 Radio 152 Film 160 Rheinhardt and Dieterle’s A Midsummer Night’s Dream 163 Other ‘Shakespeares’ on Film 167 End Note 168 Examination and Conclusion 171 Overview 171 Study and Criticism 174 Performance 181 End Note 187 7 INTRODUCTION The goal of this thesis is to assess the cultural status and reception of Shakespeare in England between 1919 and 1939, by examining, as the main areas of concentration, literary criticism and performance in the context of the unprecedented cultural, social, political and technological changes which took place during that time. A further area of concentration is that of changes in the teaching of English, and a rise in the awareness of English language and literature brought about by initiatives taken by government and educational representatives. The thesis will argue that the study and reception of Shakespeare was influenced by a distrust of tradition of political and cultural régimes and also by the problems of adapting to the new environment which emerged from the changes identified above. The core subject of this thesis is that of England and Shakespeare between the two World Wars. Whilst many writers have examined specific aspects of the subject and period, none have embraced the whole core subject. It is necessary to explain why the thesis is restricted to England, and what is meant by the ‘Shakespeare’ of its title. British academician and scholar, Sir Walter Raleigh, on the occasion of his lecture to the British Academy on 4 July 1918, said of Shakespeare that ‘he embodies and exemplifies all of the virtues and most of the faults of England’, and went on to say that I think that there is no national poet, of any great nation whatsoever who is so completely representative of his own people as Shakespeare is representative of the English.1 1 Sir Walter Raleigh, Shakespeare and England (London: H. Milford, 1918), p. 3. 8 Raleigh used the word ‘English’ rather than ‘British’, and was speaking during a war which, in July 1918, showed little sign of ending, and in which many hundreds of thousands of British and Commonwealth soldiers had been killed. The statement might therefore be regarded at best as odd, or at worst, divisive. In his book, Shakespeare in Time of War, sub-headed, Excerpts from the plays including topical allusion, Francis Colmer asserts that Shakespeare is ‘our one and only national poet’.2 He also regrets that Shakespeare was not available to engage the German enemy, saying, ‘How Shakespeare would have dealt with the present enemy is not difficult to guess, for of all nations, the Germans seem to have aroused his dislike most.’3 Shakespeare, it would appear to Raleigh and Colmer, was something more than a respected and celebrated poet and playwright. He, or it, had become the symbol and embodiment of a kind of ‘national spirit’ which could be summoned to serve his native country when called upon, or otherwise act as an unmistakeable rallying point. Whilst a twenty-first century view of Raleigh’s and Colmer’s reverential stance on Shakespeare might be dismissive, there are some aspects of the idea of Shakespeare as a quasi-paradigm for the nation which ring true, albeit on a more sober level than that which their remarks suggest. Following chapters will show that whatever the level of hyperbole or virtual deification was accorded to Shakespeare, there remained other constant, thoughtful and appreciative attitudes to his work which were demonstrated by writers, scholars, educationalists, and by some government agencies.