https://theses.gla.ac.uk/ Theses Digitisation: https://www.gla.ac.uk/myglasgow/research/enlighten/theses/digitisation/ This is a digitised version of the original print thesis. Copyright and moral rights for this work are retained by the author A copy can be downloaded for personal non-commercial research or study, without prior permission or charge This work cannot be reproduced or quoted extensively from without first obtaining permission in writing from the author The content must not be changed in any way or sold commercially in any format or medium without the formal permission of the author When referring to this work, full bibliographic details including the author, title, awarding institution and date of the thesis must be given Enlighten: Theses https://theses.gla.ac.uk/ [email protected] Migrants, Mobility and Urban Low-Income Housing in Developing Countries*: A Case Study of Squatter Settlement in Tehran - Iran* by EHSAN MAHMOUDKALAYEH Thesis submitted for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy (Ph.D.) to the Departments of Town and Regional Planning, and Geography, Faculty of Social Sciences, University of Glasgow* February, 1991. 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Box 1346 Ann Arbor, Ml 4 8 1 0 6 - 1346 To: my parents and my brothers i CONTENTS Dedication i Contents ii List of Tables vi List of Figures xi List of Plates xiii Acknowledgements xvi Abstract xvii CHAPTER ONE: Literature Review 1 Introduction 1 1.1 Third World Housing and Definition of Squatter Settlements 2 Housing Market 2 Definition of Squatter Settlements 6 1.2. Statistical Importance and Creation of Squatter Settlements 10 1.2.1 Growth of Squatter Settlements 10 Site and Location of Squatter Settlements 16 1.2.2 The Creation of Squatter Settlements (Processes) 17 Overview 17 Organised Squatter Invasions 18 Other Forms of Invasion 21 Illegal Sub-Division 22 Squatter Infiltration 2^ 1.3 Migration 27 1.3.1 Internal Migration 27 Neo-Classical Models 30 Migration and System Theory 40 1.3.2 Intra-Urban Migration Among the Poor 41 1.4 The Political Impact of Squatter Settlement 49 1.5 Socio-Economic Characteristics of Squatter Settlements Environment Health 60 ii 1.6 Housing policies and squatter settlements 65 Squatter Clearance and Relocation 69 Self- Help Programme 73 Upgrading 74 Site and Services 77 Community Participation 80 1.7 Conclusion- Research Directions and Hypotheses 82 Application of Theories to the Case of Tehran 86 CHAPTER TWO: Iran 90 2.1 General Physical characteristics 90 2.2 System of Government 93 2.2.1 Pre-Revolutionary, 1979 93 2.2.2 Post-Revolutionary, 1979 101 2.3 Urbanization in Iran 100 2.3.1 The Pattern of Internal Migration 112 CHAPTER THREE: Tehran 120 3.1 History and Physical Development 120 3.2 Population Growth and Migration to Tehran 127 3.3 Tehran Residential Structure 134 3.4 History and Growth of Squatter Settlement in Tehran 142 CHAPTER FOUR: The Planning and Housing Situation in Urban Iran 145 The Pre- Revolutionary: 145 4.1 Urban Planning and its Evolution 145 4.2 Housing Situation and Policies in Urban Iran, 1945-1979 149 4.2.1 The Third Development Plan (1963-67) 149 4.2.2 The Fourth Development Plan (1968-73) I53 4.2.3 The Fifth Development Plan (1973-77) I55 4.3 Post- Revolutionary Urban Planning 160 4.4 The Housing Situation and Policies in Urban Iran, 1979- 1990 161 4.4.1 Revolution, the Housing Market and Growth of Squatter Settlements 163 4.4.2 Rent Control Policy 172 4.4.3 Restriction on Housing Demand Policy 177 iii 4.4.4 Land Policy 180 CHAPTER FIVE: Methodology 187 5.1 Study Areas 188 Karevan 188 Zoorabad 191 5.2 The Questionnaire 191 5.3 The Sample 194 5.4 Testing the Sample 197 5.5 Research Questions 198 CHAPTER SIX: Squatter Migrants and Migration Patterns 199 6.1 Pattern of Migration 199 6.2 Motives for Migration to Tehran 203 6.3 Social Ties 206 6.4 Employment Mobility 210 6.5 Adjustment to the City Over Time 210 CHAPTER SEVEN: Demographic and Socio-Economic Charac- teristies of Residents in Zoorabad and Karevan, 1986 221 7.1 Gender and Household Structure 221 7.2 Age Structure 224 7.3 Marital Status 227 7.4 Educational Status 228 7.5 Economic Activities 230 7.6 Place of Work 232 7.7 Income 241 7.8 Residential Mobility 246 CHAPTER EIGHT: Dwelling Units' Characteristics and Public Services 262 8.1 Tenure 262 8.2 Dwelling Unit Characteristics 268 8.2.1 Building Materials and Techniques 276 8.2.2 Household Size and Overcrowding 293 8.3 Public Services 297 8.3.1 Water Supply 300 8.3.2 Waste Water and Rubbish Disposal and Drainage System 308 8.3.3 Electricity 317 8.3.4 Public Transportation 322 CHAPTER NINE: Attitudes and Aspirations of Heads of Household, Community Participation and Political Involvement 326 9.1 Attitudes of Heads of Household and their Aspirations for the Residential Environment 326 9.2 Community Organization and Squatters' Participation 332 9.3 Political Involvement 344 CHAPTER TEN: Conclusions and Recommendations 356 10.1 The Main Findings 356 10.1.1 Rural-Urban Migration 356 10.1.2 Intra-Urban Mobility 358 10.1.3 Residents' Aspiration 360 10.1.4 Policy Implications 361 10.2 Recommendations 363 10.2.1 Rural-Urban Migration 363 10.2.2 Housing 364 Site and Services 364 Upgrading Squatter Settlements 368 Notes 376 Appendix One 378 Appendix Two 382 Appendix Three 401 Bibliography 405 v LIST OF TABLES TABLES PAGE 1.1 Characteristics of Housing Delivery System in Third World Countries 5 1.2 Growth of Squatter Settlements in Selected Cities in Developing Countries 13 1.3 Formal ar^d Informal Sector Characteristics 62 2.1 List of Various Ministries in Iran 96 2.2 Urban and Rural Population of Iran: 1900 - 1986 (in millions) 107 2.3 The Structure of the Distribution of Urban Population based on the Size of Cities in 1956 - 86 in Iran 110 2.4 Population Distribution in Nine Largest Cities in Iran: 1956 - 1986 112 2.5 The Pattern of Internal Migration in Iran, in Relation to Place of Birth. 1956 - 1986 (in thousands) 115 2.6 The Pattern of Migration in Rural and Urban Area of Iran 1976 - 86 116 2.7 Urban Population Increase and Percentage Contribution of Rural-Urban Migration 117 2.8 Number and Percentage of Rural to Urban Migrants by Province (1976 - 86) 119 3.1 Population Distribution in the First Census of Tehran, 1884 127 3.2 Tehran's Population Growth and Percentage of Total National and Urban Population (thousands) 131 3.3 Percentage of Average Annual Growth of Tehran Population 1956 - 80 132 4.1 Private Sector Investment in Urban Construction Projects in Third Development Plan (1963-67) Million Rials (in 1968, 75 Rials = US$1) 152 vi 4.2 Number of structures completed by the private sector in urban areas by type of use and total cost (Current Price. In 1972, 76.5 Rials = US$1) 154 4.3 Percentage of Total Population Living in Urban Area. Iran (1973 - 78) 156 4.4 Number and Cost of Structures Completed in Tehran 1969 - 74 (76.5 Rials = US$1) 157 4.5 Newly Completed Structures in Tehran by the Private Sector (1975 - 1983) 169 4.6 Construction Permits Issued to the Private Sector (1975 - 83) 169 4.7 Investment by the Private Sector in New Structures in Tehran 1977 - 8 3 (and % Change on the Previous Year) 171 4.8 Details of Land Allocation in Tehran, 1979 - 82 183 6.1 Number of Heads of Households Who Migrated to Tehran (in Zoorabad and Karevan) 200 6.2 Migration from Rural and Urban Localities 201 6.3 Age of Migrants at Arrival to Tehran 201 6.4 Place of Last Residence of Migrants in Zoorabad and Karevan 202 6.5 Reason for Migration in Zoorabad and Karevan 204 6.6 Reason for Moving to Tehran 206 6.7 Province of Origin and Help Received by Migrants Upon Arrival in Tehran 208 6.8 The Period Migrants Have Stayed in Tehran and the Frequency of Their Visits to Their Places of Origin 209 6.9 Occupational Status of Head of Household Before Migration, First Occupation After Migration and Present Occupation in Zoorabad and Karevan 211 6.10 Number of Heads of Houshold who Migrated Individually or with Members of Their Family in Different Periods to Karevan and Zoorabad 213 6.11 Lengths of Time Between Initial Migration and Family joining the Head of Household in Karevan and Zoorabad 213 vii 6.12 Type of House Tenure of the Migrants1 Previous Accommodation 215 6.13 Length of Change of Tenure to Become Homeowner in Squatter Settlements (Karevan, Zoorabad) After Migration to Tehran 216 7.1 Number of People Surveyed in the Sample Areas by Gender 222 7.2 Type of Household Structure Encountered in the Sample 223 7.3 Percentages of Age Groups of Total Samples Population and of Heads of Households in Zoorabad and Karevan; also the Percentages of the Age Groups of Total Population and of Heads of Households in Tehran 225 7.4 Marital Status of People Living in the Sampled Dwelling (10 Years and Over) 228 7.5 Education Status of the Population Living in the Sample Survey (6 Years and Over) 229 7.6 Economic Activity of Population of Ten Years of Age and Over 230 7.7 Type of Employment of