U.S. DEPARTMENT OF THE INTERIOR U.S. GEOLOGICAL SURVEY MINERAL COMMODITY PROFILES CADMIUM By W.C. Butterman and Jozef Plachy Reston, VA Open-File Report 02-238 This report is preliminary and has not been reviewed for conformity with U.S. Geological Survey editorial standards (or with the Northern American Stratigraphic Code). Any use of trade, product, or firm names is for descriptive purposes only and does not imply endorsement by the U.S. Government. 2 CONTENTS Overview............................................................................................................................................................................................3 Historical background ........................................................................................................................................................................3 Description.........................................................................................................................................................................................4 Salient facts....................................................................................................................................................................................4 Principal forms, alloys, compounds ...............................................................................................................................................4 Metal and alloys.........................................................................................................................................................................4 Compounds ................................................................................................................................................................................5 Commercial grades, shapes, specifications ....................................................................................................................................6 Sources of cadmium...........................................................................................................................................................................6 Primary cadmium...........................................................................................................................................................................6 Reserves, reserve base, resources...............................................................................................................................................6 Secondary cadmium.......................................................................................................................................................................7 Production technologies.....................................................................................................................................................................8 Primary cadmium...........................................................................................................................................................................8 Secondary cadmium.......................................................................................................................................................................8 Uses....................................................................................................................................................................................................8 Batteries .......................................................................................................................................................................................12 Pigments ......................................................................................................................................................................................13 Coating and platings ....................................................................................................................................................................14 Polymer stabilizers.......................................................................................................................................................................14 Other uses ....................................................................................................................................................................................14 Metallic uses ............................................................................................................................................................................14 Uses in compound form ...........................................................................................................................................................15 Trends in use................................................................................................................................................................................16 Substitutes for cadmium ..............................................................................................................................................................17 Industry and market .........................................................................................................................................................................17 Cadmium and the environment ........................................................................................................................................................18 Supply, demand, and sustainable development................................................................................................................................19 Supply and distribution ................................................................................................................................................................19 Potential supply............................................................................................................................................................................22 Strategic considerations ...............................................................................................................................................................22 Sustainability of production and use ............................................................................................................................................23 Economic factors .............................................................................................................................................................................23 Outlook ............................................................................................................................................................................................24 References cited ...............................................................................................................................................................................25 FIGURES 1. U.S. refined production and apparent consumption of cadmium, 1950-2000.............................................................................4 2. Shifts in the pattern of cadmium use in the United States ........................................................................................................10 3. World cadmium consumption , 2000........................................................................................................................................11 4. World cadmium consumption, 1970-2000................................................................................................................................17 5. Relative contribution of the different source of cadmium to human exposure .........................................................................18 6. Cadmium, principal refining countries in 2000 ........................................................................................................................19 7. Production of refined cadmium, 1930-2000 .............................................................................................................................20 8. U.S. cadmium supply and demand, 1999 .................................................................................................................................21 9. U.S. trade in cadmium metal, 1950-2000 .................................................................................................................................22 10. U.S. annual average cadmium price, 1900-2000 ......................................................................................................................23 TABLES 1. Selected compounds of cadmium, and their uses........................................................................................................................5 2. Chemical requirements for commercial grades of cadmium ......................................................................................................6 3. Cadmium reserves and reserve base, yearend 2000....................................................................................................................7 4. Selected uses of cadmium with alloys and compounds used ....................................................................................................12 5. U.S. supply and demand for unfabricated cadmium .................................................................................................................16