Cheese problems solved Related titles: Improving the flavour of cheese (ISBN 978-1-84569-007-9) Flavour is a key element in product acceptance by consumers. Cheeses are complex microbial ecosystems and aspects of their flavour development remain poorly understood. This important book summarises recent research on cheese flavour and how it can be optimised. Dairy processing: improving quality (ISBN 978-1-85573-676-4) `. a brilliant book.' The Dairy Mail An authoritative review of key research, ranging from milk quality and safety to new processing technologies and particular products including cheese. Tamime and Robinson's Yoghurt Third edition (ISBN 978-1-84569-213-1) The latest edition of what is widely regarded as the standard book on the science behind yoghurt manufacture and the technologies used in its production. The new edition includes recent scientific research, including studies on the health-promoting properties of yoghurt. Details of these books and a complete list of Woodhead titles can be obtained by: · visiting our web site at www.woodheadpublishing.com · contacting Customer Services (email: [email protected]; fax: +44 (0) 1223 893694; tel.: +44 (0) 1223 891358 ext. 130; address: Woodhead Publishing Limited, Abington Hall, Abington, Cambridge CB21 6AH, England) Cheese problems solved Edited by P. L. H. McSweeney Published by Woodhead Publishing Limited, Abington Hall, Abington, Cambridge CB21 6AH, England www.woodheadpublishing.com Published in North America by CRC Press LLC, 6000 Broken Sound Parkway, NW, Suite 300, Boca Raton, FL 33487, USA First published 2007, Woodhead Publishing Limited and CRC Press LLC ß 2007, Woodhead Publishing Limited The authors have asserted their moral rights. This book contains information obtained from authentic and highly regarded sources. Reprinted material is quoted with permission, and sources are indicated. 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Project managed by Macfarlane Production Services, Dunstable, Bedfordshire, England (e-mail: [email protected]) Typeset by Godiva Publishing Services Ltd, Coventry, West Midlands, England Printed by TJ International Limited, Padstow, Cornwall, England Contents Contributor contact details ............................................. xiii Preface ................................................................. xvii Bibliography ........................................................... xix Milk 1 Introduction . ................................................ 1 2 What is the typical composition of cow's milk and what milk constituents favour cheesemaking? . ........................ 3 3 How do seasonal variations in milk composition affect cheese quality? . ....................................................... 5 4 What are milk salts and how do they affect the properties of cheese? . ....................................................... 7 5 What are the compositions of other species' milks and how does this affect their cheesemaking properties? . .......... 9 Preparation of cheesemilk 6 Introduction . ................................................ 11 7 What problems are caused by psychrotrophs? ................. 13 8 Why do elevated somatic cell counts cause difficulty in cheesemaking? ................................................ 16 9 Why must milk be standardised for cheesemaking? . .......... 18 10 Why is cheesemilk usually pasteurised? . ................. 20 11 What effects does pasteurisation have on cheesemilk? . 22 vi Contents 12 How does one improve the cheesemaking properties of over-pasteurised milk? . 24 13 What is thermisation and why is it used? . 26 14 Why are colours sometimes added to cheesemilk? . 27 15 What effects does cold storage have on the properties of milk? .................................................. 28 Ultrafiltration of cheesemilk 16 Why is ultrafiltration used for cheesemaking and how is it applied? . 30 Acidification 17 Introduction . 34 18 What are starters and what starter types are used for cheesemaking? . 36 19 What problems are caused by antibiotic residues in milk? . 38 20 What are lactenins and how do these natural substances inhibit acid production? . 40 21 What are bacteriophage and what strategies should be used to avoid phage infection? . 42 22 What factors affect the buffering capacity of cheese? . 47 23 What enzymes from starters contribute to cheese ripening? . 48 Conversion of milk to curd 24 Introduction: how does rennet coagulate milk? . 50 25 Why is the Phe-Met bond of -casein so susceptible to rennet action? . 52 26 How can one demonstrate that there are two stages to rennet coagulation? . 54 27 What enzymes are in rennet? . 55 28 What factors affect the retention of rennet in cheese curd? . 57 29 What rennet substitutes are suitable for cheesemaking? . 59 30 What factors affect rennet coagulation time? . 60 31 What effects has homogenisation of milk on the manufacture and quality of cheese? . 63 32 How does homogenisation affect the functionality of cheese? . 66 33 Why is CaCl 2 often added to cheesemilk? . 69 Syneresis 34 Introduction: what is syneresis? . 72 35 How does the composition of milk affect syneresis? . 74 36 What processing variables affect syneresis? . 75 37 Why are certain cook temperatures used for certain cheeses? . 77 38 What is case hardening and what problems does it cause? . 79 Contents vii Salt in cheese 39 Introduction: what are the functions of NaCl in cheese? . 80 40 What are the typical NaCl levels in different cheeses? . 82 41 What are the differences between dry-salting and brine-salting? . 84 42 What factors affect salt uptake in cheese curd? . 87 43 How does NaCl affect cheese composition? . 90 44 What causes the outside of brine-salted cheese to become slimy and sticky? . 92 45 How should cheese brine be prepared and maintained? . 94 46 How does NaCl affect the microbiology of cheese? . 96 47 How can one make low-sodium cheese? . 98 Cheese yield 48 Introduction: why is cheese yield important? . 100 49 How is cheese yield defined? . 102 50 How can cheese yield be predicted? . 105 51 What factors associated with the milk affect cheese yield? . 107 52 What factors under the control of the cheesemaker affect yield? . 110 New technologies 53 What potential uses do high hydrostatic pressures and high-pressure homogenisation have in cheesemaking? . 115 The microbiology of cheese ripening 54 Introduction . 117 55 What factors affect microbial growth in cheese? . 119 56 What are non-starter lactic acid bacteria and how do they affect cheese quality? . 124 57 What causes the development of gas during ripening? . 131 Pathogens and food poisoning bacteria 58 Introduction . 133 59 What cheeses are most liable to pathogens? . 134 60 Which pathogens survive pasteurisation and which are killed? 136 61 Do pathogens grow during cheese ripening? . 137 62 What is Mycobacterium avium subsp. paratuberculosis and how is it controlled? . 140 63 Is Escherichia coli O157:H7 of concern to cheesemakers? . 141 64 What factors should be considered to reduce coliform counts? 143 65 What are enterococci and are they pathogenic? . 145 66 What factors should be considered when developing a HACCP plan for cheesemaking? . 146 67 What are biogenic amines and how are they produced? . 148 viii Contents 68 What are mycotoxins, where do they come from and what problems do they cause? . 150 Nutritional aspects of cheese 69 Introduction . 152 70 What are typical levels of vitamins in different cheeses? . 153 71 Is cheese good for your teeth? . 155 72 What are typical calcium levels in different cheeses? . 157 Packaging 73 Introduction: how may cheese be packaged? . 159 74 Why does mould develop under the packaging? . 161 Whey processing 75 What products may be produced