LIBERTY UNIVERSITY SCHOOL OF DIVINITY Tawḥīdic Allah, the Trinity, and the Eschaton: A Comparative Analysis of the Qualitative Nature of the Afterlife in Islam and Christianity A Dissertation Presented to the Faculty of Liberty University Rawlings School of Divinity in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree of Doctor of Philosophy by Kevin M. Richard Lynchburg, Virginia April 2019 Copyright © 2019 Kevin Michael Richard All Rights Reserved ii Approval Sheet Tawḥīdic Allah, the Trinity, and the Eschaton: A Comparative Analysis of the Qualitative Nature of the Afterlife in Islam and Christianity. Kevin M. Richard Read and approved by: Chair Person: ___Ed Smither______ Reader: _____Sean Turchin_______ Reader: _____Mark Allen________ Date: ____April 10, 2019________ iii To my wife. This degree is as much yours as is it mine. Your enduring patience and encouragement helped to make this goal a reality. Your unwavering sacrifice and dedication to our family gave me strength to persevere to the end. I am truly blessed to be joined to you in life. Here’s to whatever may come next! iv ABSTRACT.................................................................................................................................. vii CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION, THESIS, RATIONALE .......................................................... 1 Introduction ................................................................................................................................. 1 Rationale and Need for this Study .............................................................................................. 2 Research Problem ....................................................................................................................... 5 Sub-Questions ......................................................................................................................... 7 Limitations ............................................................................................................................ 10 Key Terms ................................................................................................................................. 16 islām, īmān, iḥsān ................................................................................................................. 16 “Going back” ma‘ād ............................................................................................................. 17 “The Path” ṭarīqah ................................................................................................................ 17 “Gnosis/Cognition” maʿrifa .................................................................................................. 18 “Love” ḥubb and ‘ishq .......................................................................................................... 18 Literature Review...................................................................................................................... 19 Literature Survey Summary .................................................................................................. 41 Methodology ............................................................................................................................. 42 Criteria ...................................................................................................................................... 49 Chapter Breakdown .................................................................................................................. 51 Chapter 2 – Paradise Explored .............................................................................................. 51 Chapter 3 – The Islamic Beatific Vision: God’s Love for Man and Man’s Love for God ... 51 Chapter 4 – The Christian Beatific Vision: God’s Love for Man and Man’s Love for God 52 Chapter 5 – Conclusion ......................................................................................................... 53 CHAPTER 2: PARADISE EXPLORED ...................................................................................... 54 Introduction ............................................................................................................................... 54 Ta’wīl and Tafsīr: Hermeneutical Considerations .................................................................... 59 The Nearer and the Further Life – al-dunyā and al-ākhira ...................................................... 64 Abundance of the Sensual ......................................................................................................... 68 Sexuality and the Sacred ........................................................................................................... 73 Paradise as Theophany .............................................................................................................. 82 The Beatific Vision ................................................................................................................... 90 Conclusion ................................................................................................................................ 93 CHAPTER 3 – THE ISLAMIC BEATIFIC VISION: GOD’S LOVE FOR MAN AND MAN’S LOVE FOR GOD ......................................................................................................................... 96 Introduction ............................................................................................................................... 96 Al-Ghazālī: Islam’s First Reformer .......................................................................................... 97 v The Revival: Preparing the Heart for Inspiration ............................................................... 110 The Way Forward: Mystical Sufism or Theoretical Philosophy? ...................................... 116 The Nature of Theological Love in Islam ............................................................................... 123 Man’s Love for God............................................................................................................ 124 God’s Love for Man............................................................................................................ 131 The Object of God’s Love .................................................................................................. 136 Conclusion .............................................................................................................................. 143 CHAPTER 4 – THE CHRISTIAN BEATIFIC VISION: GOD’S LOVE FOR MAN AND MAN’S LOVE FOR GOD ......................................................................................................... 145 Introduction ............................................................................................................................. 145 Heaven: A Theocentric View.................................................................................................. 146 The Medieval Renaissance ................................................................................................. 147 Heaven Reimagined ............................................................................................................ 153 The Mystery of God ................................................................................................................ 158 God’s Love For Man ............................................................................................................... 166 Man’s Love for God................................................................................................................ 180 Conclusion .............................................................................................................................. 192 CHAPTER 5: CONCLUSION ................................................................................................... 195 The Inside/Out Approach ........................................................................................................ 199 Transcendence and Knowability ......................................................................................... 199 Love and Relationality ........................................................................................................ 213 Abductive Considerations ....................................................................................................... 228 Areas for Further Research ..................................................................................................... 232 Closing Thoughts .................................................................................................................... 235 Bibliography ............................................................................................................................... 236 vi ABSTRACT A theological doctrine of eternal life raises certain qualitative and existential questions. Considering the unfathomable duration, one may rightly ask, what will that experience be like and will it meet the experiential needs of human beings so that there are no intimations of boredom. Eternity, then, creates a potential existential problem for humanity. The problem is potential because eternity creates a certain need, a need which can concisely be stated in this way: quality must overcome quantity. Both Christianity and Islam teach human beings are intended to live forever so both religions must overcome this problem if eternal life within that religion is something to be desired. In this study, the problems of