Planetary Exploration Using Biomimetics An Entomopter for Flight on Mars Phase II Project NAS5-98051 Final Report Prepared for: Robert A. Cassanova, Director NASA Institute for Advanced Concepts October 31, 2002 fdfdafda Table of Contents Table of Contents List of Tables .............................................................................................................. iii List of Figures ............................................................................................................. v List of Contributors ................................................................................................. xiii Executive Summary .................................................................................................. xv Chapter 1.0 Introduction ............................................................................................ 1 1.1 History of Mars Flight .................................................................................................................4 1.2 Origins of the Entomopter Concept ..........................................................................................7 1.2.1 Why Flapping Wing Flight? ...............................................................................................10 1.3 Mission ......................................................................................................................................12 1.3.1 Mission Introduction ..........................................................................................................12 1.3.2 Mission Architecture ..........................................................................................................13 1.3.3 Science Application ...........................................................................................................16 Chapter 2.0 Entomopter Configuration and Operation ......................................... 25 2.1 Introduction ...............................................................................................................................25 2.2 Entomopter Morphology and Function ..................................................................................25 2.3 Baseline Mars Survey Flight Scenario for System Sizing ....................................................29 2.4 Environmental Conditions for Flight on Mars .......................................................................31 2.4.1 Physical Properties ...........................................................................................................33 2.4.2 Atmospheric Conditions ....................................................................................................33 2.4.3 Dust Storms and Wind ......................................................................................................36 2.4.4 Soil Composition ...............................................................................................................38 Chapter 3.0 Vehicle Design ...................................................................................... 41 3.1 Wing Sizing ...............................................................................................................................41 3.1.1 Engine Energy Production Requirements .........................................................................41 3.1.2 Energy Required Due to Motion ........................................................................................41 3.2 Wing Motion and Structure Analysis ......................................................................................50 3.3 Wing Aerodynamics .................................................................................................................65 3.3.1 Computational Fluid Dynamics .........................................................................................65 3.3.2 Angle of Attack Analysis ..................................................................................................112 3.3.3 Analytical Analysis of Mars Entomopter Aerodynamics ..................................................116 3.3.4 Active Flow Control (“Blowing” of the Wings) ..................................................................151 3.4 Reciprocating Chemical Muscle ...........................................................................................154 3.4.1 Fourth-generation Design Goals .....................................................................................157 3.4.2 Fourth-generation Concept .............................................................................................158 3.4.3 Sizing of the Entomopter-based Aerial Mars Surveyor ...................................................163 3.5 Fuel Storage and Production ................................................................................................169 3.5.1 Introduction .....................................................................................................................169 3.5.2 Propellant Selection ........................................................................................................170 3.5.3 Propellant Production and Storage .................................................................................179 3.5.4 Fuel Storage System .......................................................................................................203 3.5.5 Fuel Systems Comparison ..............................................................................................205 3.6 Power System .........................................................................................................................206 3.6.1 Communications .............................................................................................................207 3.6.2 Science Instruments ........................................................................................................208 3.6.3 Internal Systems .............................................................................................................208 3.6.4 Photovoltaic/Battery ........................................................................................................209 3.6.5 Thin-film Photovoltaics ....................................................................................................210 3.6.6 Lithium Batteries .............................................................................................................216 3.6.7 Thermoelectric Power Generation ..................................................................................220 3.6.8 Linear Alternator System .................................................................................................223 i Planetary Exploration Using Biomimetics An Entomopter for Flight on Mars Chapter 4.0 Entomopter Flight Operations .......................................................... 225 4.1 Entomopter Navigation and Communications on Mars ..................................................... 225 4.2 Rover-centric Entomopter Navigation ................................................................................. 225 4.2.1 Minimum Energy Short Range Obstacle Avoidance System ......................................... 227 4.2.2 Navigation Under the Baseline Mars Scenario ............................................................... 231 4.3 Entomopter-borne Active Emitters for Navigation and Communication .......................... 236 4.3.1 Assumptions and Performance Goals ............................................................................ 236 4.3.2 Propogation Losses ........................................................................................................ 240 4.3.3 Frequency of Operation .................................................................................................. 241 4.3.4 Antennas ........................................................................................................................ 242 4.3.5 Link Budget Analysis ...................................................................................................... 248 4.3.6 Link Budget Results ........................................................................................................ 252 4.3.7 Future Development Path for the Active Communications Option ................................. 257 Chapter 5.0 Potential Payload Functions Using a Communication/Control Subsystem ......................................................................................................... 259 5.1 General Science Objectives ........................................................................................... 259 5.2 Imaging and Terrain Mapping ............................................................................................... 260 5.3 Digital Terrain System ........................................................................................................... 262 5.4 Scatterometers and Spectrometers ..................................................................................... 264 Chapter 6.0 Media Exposure .................................................................................. 267 6.1 Introduction ............................................................................................................................ 267 6.2 Print Media .............................................................................................................................. 268 6.3 Online Media 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