Lecture Note BBA 7th. Semester: Patan Multiple Campus Prof. Bijaya Gopal Shrestha Scholastic philosophy ✓ The term scholastic is derived from the Latin word scholasticus and the Greek scholastikos. ✓ Scholastic means a man devoted to studying or scholar. ✓ The term philosophy represents a way of thinking about the world, the universe, and it works by asking very basic questions about the nature of human thought, the nature of the universe, and the connections between them. ✓ As a single expression, scholastic philosophy can be termed as scholasticism. Scholastic philosophy represents a medieval school of philosophy as teaching learning pedagogy through dialectic method. Dialectic means the art or practice of arriving at the truth by the exchange of logical arguments. Scholastic philosophy is a teaching learning pedagogy through dialectical reasoning. Scholasticism originally began as a reconciliation of the philosophy of the ancient classical philosophers (particularly Aristotle (384–322 b.c.e.) with medieval Christian theology (Dogma or religious belief) through dialectic method. There were great practices among medieval philosophers to incorporate Aristotle’s philosophy in defense of the faith. The most important Aristotelian principle is the idea of being (human) and an understanding of what all things are composed of. There were different contradictory views about existence, knowledge, life, power, morality, human nature, and general reality. Therefore the ideal goal of Scholasticism was the certain truth, through dialectic method with the instruments like definition, distinction, and argumentation, although frequently it could reach only probable conclusions. There should be a clear delimitation (demarcation) of the respective domains of philosophy and theology. Scholasticism highlights Man should guide his faith with his reason. The reason should guide the faith. Scholastic philosophy refers to a tool and method of learning which emphasized dialectical reasoning to extend knowledge by inference and to resolve contradictions. Therefore, it is a teaching learning pedagogy through dialectical reasoning. Lecture Note BBA 7th. Semester: Patan Multiple Campus Prof. Bijaya Gopal Shrestha The Kantian Ethics ✓ The Kantian ethics is one of the normative ethical theories. ✓ Kantian ethics is popular as DEONTOLOGY. ✓ Immanuel Kant (1724 -1804) is popular philosopher in explaining Deontological Ethics. Kant is famous as Non-consequentialist Philosopher. Duty based morality in human conducts is the main prescription of Kantian ethics. It suggests us to do our duty disregards of the consequence. “Do your duty that is best; leave unto the Lord the rest.” Some scholars have explained the Kantian Ethics linking with Niskam Karma (Desire less action). It is one of the central moral philosophy of Bhagvad Gita. Kant’s Categorical Imperative Kant developed a particular principle to determine moral duty, which he called the categorical imperative. It suggests that the imperatives of morality are not hypothetical but categorical. For example ‘Do not cheat the customers,’ ‘Fair pricing,’ ‘Honor your promise’ are the inherent corporate duty. Categorical means ‘without any doubt.’ It also represents ‘not hypothetical.’ It connotes without conditions. Imperative means absolutely necessary or unavoidable. The categorical imperative is the central philosophical concept in the deontological (duty based) moral philosophy of Kant. It is referred to as Kantian deontology. It was introduced in Kant’s Grounding for the Metaphysics of Morals (1785). Kant believed that inclinations, emotions, and consequences should play no role in the moral action. The core formulations categorical imperative includes: (i) Autonomy, (ii) Humanity, and (iii) Universality, and (iv) The Law of nature. One should respect human dignities (i.e., treat all people as free and equal to us, don't exploit people). ‘Treat others as you would like to be treated,’ Universality of the behavior is one of the main focuses of the Categorical Imperative. One should act only according to that maxim which can be universalized. It means to act only in ways that one would wish others to act when faced with the same circumstances. The Kantian ethics is very rational philosophy for the harmonious society. Despite the eminent rationalities and righteousness associated with the Kantian ethics, several CRITICISMS are recorded. ✓ Rigidity is one of the main problems of Kantian ethics. ✓ It solely dishonors the outcome as a valid factor in evaluating the morality of an action. ✓ Kant’s categorical imperative is not actually free from consequentialism view. It is because; its motivation is also oriented toward the consequence, i.e., universality. ✓ It denies expectations of growth. Private sectors’ motivation toward the economic objective (their desire for profit) is not valid as per Kant. No one can survive, indeed, in this world with rigid deontology in all respects. In many instances human beings must think the consequence of their action. Lecture Note BBA 7th. Semester: Patan Multiple Campus Prof. Bijaya Gopal Shrestha The Machiavellian Principle ✓ Machiavellian principle is well-known political philosophy propounded by Niccolo Machiavelli (1469–1527), renowned western (Italian) philosopher. ✓ The main sources of Machiavellian principles are his book The Discourses (about republic) and The Prince (about monarchism). These are based on the observations of political situation of Medieval Period Europe, especially Italy. ✓ Machiavellian principles were more focused on the qualities of political ruler. ✓ It is more political philosophy than an ethical theory. It is about statecraft. ✓ The Machiavellian principles focus largely on preserving state and retaining power of ruler rather than pursuing ideals. ✓ The basic assumption of Machiavelli is: “Human nature is fundamentally bad. They are Selfish, Fickle, Egoistic, and Runaway from danger, Aggressive.” Therefore, there is significance of Prince (Monarch). Machiavellian principles are basically the suggestions to the ruler. He suggests that every society consists of two sections: (i) Nobility and (ii) Common people. Nobility section of society is more dangerous and less reliable for prince whereas, common people are less dangerous and more reliable. Therefore prince should base his power on common people. Critical overview of Machiavellian principle ✓ Its fundamental assumption about human being is pessimistic. ✓ Machiavelli suggests maintaining fearful environment than love. But he suggest to ruler to appear as good as he can. Therefore, it is double standard conception. ✓ According to Machiavellian principle political ruler is allowed to break the conventional moral principles. Accordingly, ruler (Prince) is above those principles. Ruler can make moral principles through laws. Whereas common people must obey those all moral principles. ✓ Machiavellian principle advocates cruelty to political opposition for the power of political ruler. However, it also advocates preservation of state. ✓ It advocates dual morality concept. One for political ruler and next for common people. Machiavellian principle argue against the nobility/elite group of society and suggest cruelty to them when need. Lecture Note BBA 7th. Semester: Patan Multiple Campus Prof. Bijaya Gopal Shrestha Utilitarianism of Jeremy Bentham and John Stuart Mill ✓ It is one of the Normative Ethics and important part of Teleological Ethics ✓ Utilitarianism is also known as Consequentialism ✓ Consequence of the conducts is its major concern, i.e., the end justifies the means ✓ It suggests to regard the consequence as a predictor to evaluate ethical stance ✓ Actions those maximize pleasure and minimize pain is to be considered as ethical ✓ Our duty is to promote the greatest happiness of the greatest number. ✓ Bentham (1748-1832) and Mill (1806-1873) are popular philosophers of Utilitarianism. ✓ It is consistent with the Buddhist philosophy: Bahujana sukhaya bahujana hitaya According to Bentham the consequences can be measured in some way. The pleasure (positives) and pain (negatives) of different individuals be added together and based on the results different courses of action can be compared. Bentham had formulated precise quantitative measurement of pleasure and pain. A way of measurement that he called as: hedonistic calculus. The evaluating procedure of pleasure and happiness is as follows: Intensity: How strong it is Duration: How long it is Certainty: How likely it could be Propinquity: When it could arrive Fecundity: If it will cause further pleasure Purity: How free from pain it is Extent: How many people are affected Critiques view that Bentham’s hedonistic version of utilitarianism failed to differentiate between kinds and qualities of pleasure. Some have criticized it by illustrating pig’s pleasure. J. S. Mill attempted to develop a more defensible version of the utilitarian position. Mill has substantially modified Bentham’s Utilitarianism and popularized it. Mill holds that some kinds of pleasure are more desirable and more valuable than others. It means pleasure also differ in their quality. Mill's major contribution to utilitarianism is his argument for the qualitative separation of pleasures. Thus, in calculating the greatest happiness, one must make qualitative distinctions. Utilitarianism of Bentham and Mill is relatively clear. In many cases, Utilitarianism is foundation of law making. It is consistent with many religious claims. It is comfortable for moral reasoning in different