Nature’s Women: Ecofeminist Reflections on Jabiluka By Monica Nugent A thesis submitted in fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy School of Science & Technology Studies University of New South Wales, 2002 Nature’s Women: Ecofeminist Reflections on Jabiluka i Abstract Environmentalists see the protest against the Jabiluka uranium mine in Australia’s Northern Territory as an example of positive green-black relations. The formation of an alliance between Aboriginal owners and greens to protest against the mine resulted in a lengthy campaign that included maintaining a camp near the lease- site and organising a long series of mass protest actions in a remote location over an extended period from March – October 1998. However, some tensions between greens and the traditional Aboriginal owners became evident as the campaign went on. This thesis traces the origins of these tensions to past conflicts between environmentalists and Aboriginal people and shows that they are largely related to their conflicting perceptions of the environment. Those perceptions arise from different knowledge systems and are encapsulated in the terms “wilderness” and “country”, used to describe the physical world by environmentalists and Aboriginal owners respectively. I discuss the attitudes towards the environment that accompany those perceptions and consider the way they were manifest in some of the tensions that arose at Jabiluka. The close relationship between influential strands of environmentalism and Western science is a related source of conflict. My analysis of that relationship shows that environmentalism, via “green science” is more closely aligned with the developmentalist worldview than the Aboriginal worldview. The thesis is an analytical reflection upon the Jabiluka Protesters’ Camp based on the personal experience I gained from my fieldwork there and informed by the literature of feminism, ecofeminism, social constructionism and anthropology. I discuss the manifestations of ecofeminism I observed at Jabiluka. I argue that the Jabiluka Protesters’ Camp functioned successfully because it utilised ecofeminist principles and practices, that as a consequence the relationship between greens and blacks has been strengthened and therefore that ecofeminism can continue to have a positive effect on those relations in the future. Nature’s Women: Ecofeminist Reflections on Jabiluka ii Acknowledgements Very early in the production of this thesis, Gavan McDonell remarked that the end result is always a collaborative effort. That is very much the case with this one, and there were many members of the team. In particular, I want to acknowledge the following - without some of them I could never have even imagined contemplating this task, and without others I would never have finished it. ♣ Paul Brown & Gavan McDonell - special thanks are due to these wonderful teachers & mentors - for expertise, for advice (both practical and philosophical), for enlightening guidance through the maze of academia, and for unswerving support and patience with what must have been a very frustrating experience during the times that I refused to shake off the “I can’t do it” syndrome. ♣ Ariel Salleh for her helpful suggestions, rigorous eye for detail, and ecofeminist inspiration. ♣ Jabiluka and its activists, especially my “interviewees” – in particular Elle, Bridget & Kirsten, for their refreshing enthusiasm and invaluable contributions. ♣ Dave Sweeney and the Australian Conservation Foundation, Gundjehmi Aboriginal Corporation, the Environment Centre Northern Territory and Friends of the Earth Fitzroy. ♣ Lachlann Partridge for the reproduction of the visual images throughout the thesis. ♣ David Miller and the School of STS at the UNSW for resources and financial support as well as the experience of teaching. ♣ My family for simply always “being there” and my friends (both near and far) for welcome distraction and for reminding me that there is a life outside this project. ♣ And especially our awe-inspiring bush for sustaining me both physically and emotionally, and providing the energy and inspiration to keep going! ♣ ♣ ♣ My heartfelt thanks to you all ♣ ♣ ♣ Nature’s Women: Ecofeminist Reflections on Jabiluka iii “Jabiluka is about us, blackfellas, whitefellas together and our belief in the future of the nation” (From the cover of the Stop Jabiluka Handbook) Nature’s Women: Ecofeminist Reflections on Jabiluka iv Table of Contents List of Figures vi Glossary of Terms vii List of Acronyms ................................................................................... viii Preface.................................................................................................... ix Chapter One: The Jabiluka Protesters’ Camp ................................. 1 Vignette (i): My Jabilukan Journey Begins....................................... 2 1.1 Jabiluka’s Backdrop......................................................................... 6 1.2 Jabiluka: Site of an Ongoing Struggle ............................................. 9 1.3 Kakadu: Heritage For All................................................................. 17 1.3.1 Land Rights: Protecting Culture.......................................... 19 1.3.2 Green Visions: Protecting Nature ....................................... 24 1.3.3 Mineral Site: Protecting Industry........................................ 26 1.3.4 Jabiluka Protesters’ Camp: Arena of an Alliance ............... 27 1.4 A Jabilukan Approach...................................................................... 33 1.4.1 Feminist Approaches – Ecofeminist Ways ......................... 36 1.4.2 Language and Style............................................................. 42 1.5 Thematic Overview.......................................................................... 43 1.5.1 Statement of Thesis............................................................. 45 Vignette (ii): “The John Howard Action”.......................................... 48 Chapter Two: Land Rights, Not Mining Rights................................ 50 Vignette (iii): “Cleaning Up” .............................................................. 51 2.1 Introduction...................................................................................... 53 2.2 Wilderness........................................................................................ 55 2.2.1 Or Wild Lands? .................................................................... 61 2.2.2 Forested Wilderness ............................................................. 65 2.2.3 The Malimup Communiqué Debate..................................... 69 2.3 Country ............................................................................................ 72 2.3.1 Land Rights & Self-determination ....................................... 72 2.3.2 The Meaning of Country ...................................................... 74 2.3.3 Looking Out For Country..................................................... 79 2.3.4 Own Country, Own Culture ................................................. 81 2.3.5 Appropriation ....................................................................... 82 2.4 Jabilukan Tensions........................................................................... 88 2.4.1 Savage Romantics ................................................................ 89 2.4.2 Ploughshares......................................................................... 93 2.5 Conclusion ...................................................................................... 100 Vignette (iv): “The Dress Code” ......................................................... 103 Chapter Three: Aboriginal Country, European Dreaming ............. 105 Vignette (v): “Strong Country Week”................................................ 106 3.1 Introduction...................................................................................... 108 3.2 Environmentalists; Radical Conservationists? ................................ 109 3.2.1 Green Voices, Green Science............................................... 109 3.3 Building Pictures.............................................................................. 115 3.3.1 Traditional Owners, Aboriginal Cultures and Country........ 123 3.3.2 Developmentalist Views....................................................... 129 3.4 National Parks: Colonial Property?............................................... 134 3.4.1 Eurocentric Hand-backs ....................................................... 137 Nature’s Women: Ecofeminist Reflections on Jabiluka v 3.4.2 Separating Culture From Nature .......................................... 142 3.5 Western Science vs Indigenous Knowledge: Imagined Boundaries 145 3.5.1 Outside the Boundaries ........................................................ 147 3.5.2 Mirrar Living Tradition........................................................ 150 3.6 Conclusion: Captured by Science .................................................... 156 Vignette (vi): “Ubirr” .......................................................................... 161 Chapter Four: Feminist Eco-logistics................................................. 164 Vignette (vii): “The Women’s Space” ................................................ 165 4.1 Introduction...................................................................................... 168 4.1.1 Ecofeminist Pathways .......................................................... 169 4.1.2 Interconnection, not Dualism