4450 UNIVERSITY OF HAWAI'I LIBRARY AMERICAN WOMENS DESTINY, ASIAN WOMENS DIGNITY: TRANS-PACIFIC ACTIVISM OF THE WOMAN'S CHRISTIAN TEMPERANCE UNION, 1886-1945 A DISSERTATION SUBMITTED TO THE GRADUATE DIVISION OF THE UNIVERSITY OF HAWAI'I IN PARTIAL FULFILLMENT OF THE REQillREMENTS FOR THE DEGREE OF DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY IN AMERICAN STUDIES MAY 2004 By Manako Ogawa Dissertation Committee: Paul F. Hooper, Chairperson Patricia G. Steinhoff Naoko Shibusawa Mark Helbling MarlYoshihara To my parents, Ogawa Shin'ichiro and Ogawa Kazuko iH CONTENTS ABSTRUCT viii ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS x EDITORIAL NOTE xiv ILLUSTRATIONS xv LIST OF ABBRIVIATIONS xxiii CHAPTER INTRODUCTION 24 1. FROM THE TEMPERANCE UNION TO THE KYOFUKAI: THE INSTITUTIONAL DEVELOPMENT OF THE WOMAN'S CHRISTIAN TEMPERANCE UNION IN THE UNITED STATES AND JAPAN Introduction 44 The Birth of the Woman's Christian Temperance Union and its Concerns for International Enterprise 46 The Formation of the World's Woman's Christian Temperance Union and the Ideology behind Its Growing Interest in Japan. ... 55 The Woman's Christian Temperance Union Meets Asia in 1886 61 The Birth ofKyOfukai in Tokyo and the Japanese Women. .. 68 The Modernization and Diffusion of Concubinage and Prostitution in Japan .... 81 The Nascent Movement of anti-Concubinage and anti-Licensed Prostitution ....... 88 The Activism of the WCTU in Japan and in its Early Days and the Development of its International Concerns ..... 93 The Ideology of the "Mother's Role" in the World's WCTU . 98 IV "We Are Now a Living, Working Power": The Development of the Japanese WCTU 110 Conclusion 120 2. THE RESCUE HOME FOR JAPANESE WOMEN AND THE "HULL-HOUSE" OF DOWNTOWN TOKYO: THE BIRTH AND DEVELOPMENT OF THE JIAIKANAND THE KOBOKAN Introduction 126 The Formation of the Foreign Auxiliary and its Inchoate Plan for the Rescue Work .... 128 Prostitution and Rescue Work in the United States. 133 The Enterprise of the Jiaikan in its Path-Finding Days 137 "We are really established': The Development of the Jiaikan. 151 JapaneseWomen's Work for Japanese Women: the Japanization of Jiaikan .... 164 The Rising Tide for a Settlement Work among Missionaries. 171 The Nascent Stage of the K6b6kan Settlement ..... 178 Typhoon and Earthquake: An Ordeal of the Newborn K6b6kan 185 Yoshimi Shizue and the Development of the K6b6kan 198 Surviving the War 205 Conclusion 212 3. THE POWER AND HIERARCHY AMONG WOMEN OF THE PACIFIC AND THE CREATION OF THE "WHITE RIBBON LEAGUE OF NATIONS" Introduction 218 v The Japanese WCTU Meets America: Yajima's Trip to the United States 223 The Japanese WCTU Meets Asia: The Creation ofits Outposts in Korea and Taiwan .... 236 The Strengthened Tie between American and Japanese White Ribboners and the Rise of the Chinese WCTU. 248 The Construction of the "White Ribbon League of Nations" 260 Japanese Women in Women's International Movements of the United States and Europe 268 The Exporting Outposts of the Japanese WCTU in Asia 281 The Japanese Exclusion Act of 1924 and its Mtermath 292 Japanese, Chinese, Korean, and American Women at International Gatherings ..... ., 305 Conclusion 319 4. WAR AND ITS IMPACT ON THE TRANSNATIONAL MOVEMENT OF THE WOMAN'S CHRISTIAN TEMPERANCE UNION Introduction 325 Deteriorating Sisterhood: The Japanese Military Aggression in China and the WCTU ...... 328 The Estrangement ofJapanese and Chinese White Ribboners and Increasing Pro·Chinese Sentiment in the United States. ... 340 The Strengthened Tie between the Temperance Women of China and the United States ..... .. 348 The Women's Versions of the Greater East Asia Co·Prosperity Sphere 354 The Clash between the White Ribbon Allies and the Greater East Asia Co·Prosperity Sphere ..... .. 368 VI Temperance Racism in the United States 382 The Celebration of a Great Humanitarian in China: Confirmed Friendship between the Chinese andAmerican White Ribboners 388 Toward the Reparation of Broken Sisterhood: Works of Former Missionaries Stationed in Japan 393 Conclusion 401 CONCLUSION 405 GLOSSARY 424 APPENDIX 1: THE WORLD'S WCTU AFIILIATES (AS OF 1928) 427 APPENDIX 2: THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE JAPANESE WCTU (JWCTU) AND ITS BRANCHES IN EAST ASIA ..... 428 APPENDIX 3: THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE WCTUS IN EAST ASIA 429 BIBRIOGRAPHY 430 Vll ABSTRRACT OF THIS DISSERTATION American Women's Destiny, Asian Women's Dignity: Trans-Pacific Activism of the Woman's Christian Temperance Union, 1886-1945 By Manako Ogawa Doctor ofPhilosophy in American Studies University of Hawai'i at Manoa, 2004 Professor Paul F. Hooper, Chair This dissertation examines the trans-Pacific activism of the World's Woman's Christian Temperance Union (WCTU) and its overseas affiliates, particularly the Japanese Union. Unlike many previous studies oftransnational women's activities that focus on trans-Atlantic interactions and Western women, this research highlights the agency of Asian women and transnational exchanges of women in the United States, Japan, China, and otherAsian nations. Through the analysis of the multidirectional and multilayered flows of institutions, ideology, and practices of social reforms from the United States to Asia, from Asia to the United States, and within Asia, this study demonstrates how Vlll American and Asian women negotiated the assumed universal applicability of American style reform plans, challenged prescriptions about power and hierarchy, and yet still strived to construct a transnational sisterhood despite their own nationalistic concerns. Even though the WCTU women ostensibly promoted global sisterhood under the maternalistic slogan, "organized mother's love," the networks of the WCTU developed hand in hand with imperialism promoted by male leaders. Its close identification with realpolitik often left power relations and hierarchies untouched and even reproduced ideas about the center and margin along the lines of imperialism ­ as evidenced by Western women's domination and peripherization of Asians in an international women's community and by Japanese women's self-acclaimed leadership in Asia. The trans-Pacific sisterhood developed with tensions of racism, imperialism, rivalry, and resistance to colonization. By treating women of both America and Asia as active agents in global interactions, this dissertation examines both the strength and weakness of the trans·Pacific sisterhood through analysis of what elements hindered them from constructing an international sense of"we," and how, ifat all, they overcame them from the late 19th century to the end of World War II. IX ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS Throughout the course of this project, I have received generous support and heart-warming encouragement from many institutions and individuals. Although I have spent many solitary hours at a computer writing, this dissertation is the product of cooperation with my mentors, friends, and family on both sides of the Pacific Ocean and on an island in the middle of it. I express my special thanks to Professor Paul F. Hooper, my chair. He introduced me to the world of trans·Pacific interactions and stimulated me to explore private segments of diplomacy. Professor Mari Yoshihara has provided a thorough reading and given me insightful critiques and sound advice. Professor Naoko Shibusawa has been my "cheerleader" and showered me with her intellectual passion. I am also deeply grateful to other committee members; Professor Mark Helbling and Professor Patricia Steinhofffor commenting astutely on this manuscript. Great encouragement and understanding have been given from outside of the UH campus. I am especially grateful for Professor Shioda Tsutomu of Waseda University who spurred me to study English, go abroad, and look at Japan "from the outside" when I was an undergraduate student of Japanese History at Waseda. Professor Utsumi Takashi ofTokyo University of Foreign Studies and Professor Harriet Alonso of City College of New York showed great interest in my project and encouraged me to keep up my work. lowe great debts to Takahashi Kikue, Yamaya Shinko, and Kuriki Junko of x the Japanese Woman's Christian Temperance Union, Kawada Sadako of the Jiairyo, Segawa Kazuo and Nohara Kenji of the Kobokan, and Ikeda Michiko of the Airinkan for allowing me to interview them and quote from materials in their collections. Their wishes to pass on their past experiences to the next generation impressed me and implanted a sense of responsibility as a scholar to immortalize the many forgotten heroes who might otherwise sink into oblivion. The staff at Imadegawa Library and the Faculty of Theology of Doshisha University, Flora Lamson Hewlett Library of Graduate Theological Union, and Rev. Dr. Theodore T. Ogoshi Memorial Archives of Makiki Christian Church generously allowed me to access their collections. Tokiko Yamamoto Bazzell of Hamilton Library, University of Hawai'i at Manoa, broke the deadlock of my research by introducing me to rare documents that I would have never encountered without her. William K. Beatty and Virginia L. Beatty of Frances E. Willard Memorial Library patiently assisted me over years of visits and queries. They also made my research trip pleasurable and productive by taking me out for lunch and coffer breaks, and arranging a special tour to the Rest Cottage that had long been a center of the Woman's Christian Temperance Union. William passed away in December 2001, but he still lives in my memory. I have been blessed with many friends since I came to Hawai'i. Among those in Hawai'i with whom I had parties, dinners, coffees, conversations, arguments, tears and laughs were Parichat Jungwiwattanaporn, Monobe Hiromi, Mori Akiko, Tsuzuki Hiroko, Heather Diamond, Nitta Toshitake, Edward Kim, Yonezawa Shioko, Li Jinzhao, William W. Dressler, and many more. They have doubled my joy, halved my sorrow, and Xl have changed Honolulu from a foreign town to a place dear to my heart. Despite my decade-long absence, I have enjoyed friendship and many forms of support in Japan. In particular, I am especially thankful to Hatakeyama Satoshi who has offered crucial encouragement and academic support at various stages along the way. I would also like to acknowledge Hayashi Hideki who took time out from busy schedule and taught me the value of trans-Pacific friendship.