A Multidisciplinary Approach to Investigating and Managing the Disturbance of Southern Sea Otters (Enhydra lutris nereis) by Recreational Activities by Deborah Benham, BSc, MSc Thesis submitted to the University of Nottingham, for the Degree of Doctor of Philosophy, 2006 1 Abstract The southern sea otter (Enhydra lutris nereis) is listed as threatened under the Endangered Species Act (1972). The California population has been slower to recover than other populations and suffers from high rates of largely unexplained adult mortality (Estes et al 2003). As such there is concern regarding any human activities which may have a potentially negative impact on this species. In the last few years some of this concern has been manifested as comments and complaints from members of the public, conservation organisations and sea otter researchers, regarding interactions between sea otters and marine recreational activities. This has occurred mostly in the Monterey Peninsula area, located in the Monterey Bay National Marine Sanctuary (MBNMS), California. The complaints made regarding recreational activities were particularly directed at kayaking. This activity occurs at very high levels along the northern Monterey Peninsula and takes place in the kelp beds where sea otters spend much of their lives. The current study was undertaken to: assess the severity of this problem, determine the underlying causes of sea otter disturbance, generate information to reduce incidences of sea otter disturbance and improve responsible wildlife viewing in general. Multidisciplinary methods were used to investigate the social context within which sea otter disturbance occurred and to measure the extent and causes of this problem in terms of sea otter responses to disturbance stimuli. In-depth, semi-structured interviews were conducted with stakeholders to determine attitudes toward sea otters and identify whether relationships between stakeholders contributed to the occurrence of otter disturbance. A questionnaire based survey of kayaking participants was conducted to assess motivation for visiting, tourist types, attitudes toward management of wildlife disturbance and factors contributing toward satisfaction with the kayaking experience. These social research methods were used because previous studies suggest that involving stakeholders in tourism, natural-resource research and planning can facilitate improved management (e.g. Duffus & Dearden 1990; Reynolds & Braithwaite 2001; Jamal & Getz 1995; Grimble & Wellard 1997; Bramwell & Sharman 1999; Orams 2000; Kerstetter 2004). 2 These methods have not been used previously in the context of understanding and managing wildlife disturbance. Lack of awareness of sea otter disturbance, insufficient information regarding the impacts of disturbance on otters, poor communication between management agencies and inadequate education were identified as some potential underlying causes for sea otter disturbance. Responses of otters to anthropogenic disturbance were considered in the context of antipredator responses as suggested by Frid & Dill (2002). Disturbance was manifested as short-term changes in behaviour such as increased vigilance and/or avoidance of disturbance stimuli. These short-term changes had impacts on time- budgeting by sea otters which could potentially lead to increased energy expenditure. Kayaks were responsible for causing most disturbance events, however less than 25% of kayaks provoked any response from otters. Direct and very close approaches from kayaks were identified as particularly disturbing to otters. There was some evidence that otters exposed to high levels of recreational activity may have become more tolerant than individuals in less disturbed areas. The information provided by this research has been used to improve collaboration, communication and information dissemination between stakeholders in the MBNMS. It has also been used to develop local wildlife watching guidelines for kayakers. In addition to this it has provided a base for the development of responsible sea otter viewing recommendations in the new California marine wildlife watching guidelines, developed by the National Oceanographic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA). As far as I am aware this study represents the first attempt to use multidisciplinary research methods to identify the underlying causes of wildlife disturbance and to subsequently use this information for improvement of educational programmes and wildlife watching guidelines. The methods used in this study can also be applied to the identification and management of wildlife disturbance in other locations and for other species. 3 Acknowledgements I would like to take this opportunity to thank the numerous people and organisations who have helped and supported me over the last four years. First thanks go to Tom Kieckhefer who came up with the initial idea for the study. Thanks Tom for all your ideas, a place to sleep during the pilot work, support in finding grants and your belief in me that I could carry this project through. Thanks to the University of Nottingham for giving me a chance to conduct this research and for financial support. Next thanks go to Friends of the Sea Otter (FSO) and Pacific Cetacean Group (PCG). Without the grants, office space, equipment loans, friendship, support and belief in this project from all the staff, past and present, at FSO and PCG, this project may have never got off the ground. Particular thanks to FSO Executive Director, D’Anne Albers, for giving me a place to stay at the end of the project and for her kindness and generosity throughout the last two years. Many thanks to the Sea Otter Research and Conservation Group (SORAC) at the Monterey Bay Aquarium for the loan of radio-tracking equipment and in particular to Michelle Staedler for all her help and advice. I am also extremely grateful to Professor Jim Estes and the other staff at the University of California, Santa Cruz, for allowing me to be a UCSC research student and helping with all the visa application procedures. Also thanks to Jim for his expertise and advice on sea otters. Thanks to the staff at the National Oceanographic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA), Jen Jolly, Roy Torres, Bob Yerena, Michelle Roest, Lisa Emmanuelson and any one else who helped with development, funding and distribution of the wildlife cards or allowed me to interview them. Thanks also to other interviewees, those who gave advice and ideas toward the project or let me pester their customers with questionnaires; Jim Curland, Columbine Culberg, Greg Sanders, Steve Shimek, Nancy Black, Michelle Knight, Margaret Collins, Anjanette Adams, Michael Roberts and all the staff and guides at Monterey Bay Kayaks and Kayak Connection. Huge thanks must go to all my volunteers who helped me collect and process data. I would never have been able to manage such a challenging project without their help. 4 Being in Monterey would not have been the same without all the wonderful friends I made there; Josh, Juliet, Christina, Deanna, David, thanks for being so much fun, keeping me relatively sane when things were tough and giving me an excuse to go to the city and party a little sometimes. Stephanie, thanks for my lovely room, your friendship and the chance to look after the fabulous Mina! To my wonderful sister Kate and nephew Jake, you have no idea how much it meant to me to get to know you both better and have some family nearby while I was away from home. On the home front, massive thanks, hugs and kisses to Cherry and James for being my best friends and surrogate family while I was in Nottingham. What would I have done without you and Rock City to let off a little steam now and then? Big thanks to all my other friends as well, Emilie, Sandie, Mez, Chloe, Emma, for believing in me all these years and not laughing at me for still being an impoverished student when you all got proper jobs! Many thanks also to my lab mates over the years, Ann, Tabi, Andy and Olivia, for putting up with my little drama’s... I know you enjoyed them really. I am eternally indebted to my supervisors, Prof. Chris Barnard, Prof. Thea Sinclair and Dr Sarah Collins. Without your guidance and support I would never have got through this. Chris and Thea thank you for continuing to challenge and help me for the last four years. I don’t know what I would have done without you, particularly in the last six months! I’d also like to thank Ben Leyshon from SNH, Vanessa Williams and my other colleagues at WDCS, for being so understanding during the PhD write up process and allowing me to take time off my new job to finish it. Thanks to my wonderful partner Simon for loving and supporting me, even though I was locked in my office for the first 6 months we were living together. I was honoured that you believed in us enough to move to Scotland with me, you are a truly wonderful man! Mum, what would I do without you? You have been my rock and my inspiration all my life. You made me believe I could do anything I wanted to and supported me all the way. 5 Thank you for your unconditional love, wise words and the total belief you have in me and my dreams. I am incredibly grateful for all the practical help you have given me with proof-reading and editing in recent months, I couldn’t have done this without you. You are truly remarkable and I can never thank you enough for everything you have done for me, I love you very much. This thesis is dedicated to my father, because he would have been so proud. 6 Chapter 1: Preface In recent years there has been much discussion regarding the potential merits and problems associated with ecotourism, wildlife tourism and other forms of nature based tourism and recreation (e.g. Shackley 1996 pgs.16-35; Orams 1999; Wearing & Neil 2000; Page & Dowling 2002 pgs. 148-194). Wildlife tourism and ecotourism are subsets of nature-based tourism, however wildlife tourism does not automatically fulfil all the requirements of ecotourism (Bejder 2005).