UNIVERSITY OF MIAMI AMERICAN WOMEN AND THE MODERN SUMMER OLYMPIC GAMES: A STORY OF OBSTACLES AND STRUGGLES FOR PARTICIPATION AND EQUALITY By Cecile Houry A DISSERTATION Submitted to the Faculty of the University of Miami in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy Coral Gables, Florida May 2011 ©2011 Cecile Houry All Rights Reserved UNIVERSITY OF MIAMI A dissertation submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy AMERICAN WOMEN AND THE MODERN SUMMER OLYMPIC GAMES: A STORY OF OBSTACLES AND STRUGGLES FOR PARTICIPATION AND EQUALITY Cecile Houry Approved: ________________ _________________ Donald Spivey, Ph.D. Terri A. Scandura, Ph.D. Professor of History Dean of the Graduate School ________________ _________________ Robin Bachin, Ph.D. Gregory Bush, Ph.D. Professor of History Professor of History ________________ Andy Gillentine, Ph.D. Professor of Sport and Entertainment Management University of South Carolina HOURY, CECILE (Ph.D., History) American Women and the Modern Summer Olympic Games: (May 2011) A Story of Obstacles and Struggles for Participation and Equality Abstract of a dissertation at the University of Miami. Dissertation supervised by Professor Donald Spivey. No. of pages in text. (258) This dissertation focuses on American women and the modern summer Olympic Games. It retraces the history of women’s participation in this significant and global sporting event to study the obstacles generated by social, economic, political, and cultural gender patterns while providing a forum for female Olympians to give voice to their journeys and how they dealt with and eventually overcame some of these obstacles. The findings herein support other scholarly works, arguing that despite progress, the Olympic Games, and by extension the institution of sport in general, is and will remain a hegemonic space that allows men to maintain and reinforce their dominant position in society. It does show, however, that even though this global athletic event did not, at the collective level, result in an egalitarian redefinition of gender roles, the benefits of training and participating in the Olympics remain indisputable for the women involved-- benefits no different than these enjoyed by male athletes. The Olympic Games, then, empowers women as it simultaneously reinforces their position of subordination. Dedicated to Mamie Denise iii Acknowledgements It is an impossible task for me to acknowledge and thank all the people who contributed to the successful completion of this dissertation--partly because it was a long journey and partly because I was blessed with a lot of support. First, I could not have written these 200-some pages without the librarians and archivists who assisted me to locate essential sources at the different places I travelled for research, including the Los Angeles 84 Foundation, the University of Illinois Special Collections, the University of Notre Dames Sports Collection and Archives, the United States Olympic Committee, and the Lausanne Olympic Study Center. I also could not have written all these pages without the participation of more than thirty female Olympians who agreed to spend some time answering my questions. It was an honor to interact with such champions; it was also extremely enriching to hear about their experiences and what it meant for them to be Olympians. Second, this dissertation would not have seen the light without the support and guidance of the University of Miami’s History Department and of the members of my committee--Professors Donald Spivey, Robin Bachin, Gregory Bush, and Andy Gillentine. I extend special thanks to Dr. Spivey, for supporting and helping me all these years, and to Lenny Del Granado who always made sure I had all my administrative ducks in row. Third, I want to thank my Belen and FIU friends, and especially the Honors College mafia. Juan, thanks for always saving me when technology fails me--or when I fail technology. Lesley, words cannot express what an incredible force you have been in my iv life these last two years. I would not be where I am today without you. Thanks also to the following amazing people who helped me in major ways over the years: Brigitte Coste, for making me want to prove you wrong; Dr. Marcy Ullom, for the motivation; Dr. Whittington Johnson, for “adopting” me; Malcolm, for the joy rides; Pascale, for always being there; Dr. Casares, for dealing with me; Laurent, for being a great friend. Finally, a gigantic thank you to my family--Teresa, Carlitos, Teresita, Guy, Nadine, Axelle, Ludo, Noan, Lulu, Dede, Regis, and Denise. You all inspired me to want to reach higher and always made me feel like I could. v TABLE OF CONTENTS Page List of Figures ............................................................................................................. viii List of Tables .............................................................................................................. ix List of Abbreviations ................................................................................................. x Introduction .............................................................................................................. 1 Review of the literature …………………………………………… ............... 1 The Olympic Games--a case study .................................................................. 10 Theoretical considerations ............................................................................... 13 Overview .......................................................................................................... 16 Methodology .................................................................................................... 19 Chapter 1 The historical context: Gender roles during the nineteenth Century--an obstacle to female athleticism ............................................................. 23 The social construction of gender ……………………………………………23 Societal changes and their impact on notions of femininity and masculinity .. 26 Pseudo-medical theories and their impact on women’s athletic aspirations .... 30 Chapter 2 A Major Obstacle to Female Olympism: Pierre De Coubertin-- .. 38 Coubertin and educational reform ................................................................... 39 Revitalizing the Olympic Games ..................................................................... 43 The social, moral, and political implications of sport for Coubertin ............... 46 Coubertin and women in sport ......................................................................... 48 Chapter 3 Women’s entrance into Coubertin’s Olympics--obstacles to public acceptance of women athletes ................................................................................... 61 Breaking into a guarded sports institution ....................................................... 61 The first women competitors ............................................................... 61 Alice Milliat and her Women’s Olympic Games ................................ 64 The 1928 women’s 800-meter race ...................................................... 68 Obstacles to public acceptance of female Olympians ...................................... 73 The requirement of feminine appearance ............................................ 73 Mildred Didrikson’s career ...................................................... 86 Commercialization and exploitation .................................................... 92 The financial cost of being an Olympian ............................................. 98 The benefits of Olympic participation disregarded ......................................... 101 vi Human and intercultural exchange ...................................................... 102 Traveling opportunities ........................................................................ 105 Memorable human and athletic experiences ........................................ 108 Chapter 4 A new obstacle: Female Olympism under Avery Brundage’s Presidency .............................................................................................................. 118 The making of a leader .................................................................................... 118 Brundage and female athleticism ..................................................................... 119 The All-American Girls Baseball League ........................................................ 133 The impact of the Cold War and the Civil Rights Movement ......................... 138 The passage of Title IX .................................................................................... 150 Chapter 5 A new obstacle: The femininity test ................................................. 154 Questioning female athletes’ gender ................................................................ 154 The IAAF’s implementation of femininity tests .............................................. 160 The case of Ewa Klobukowska ............................................................ 162 The IOC’s implementation of femininity tests ................................................ 165 The case of Maria Patino ..................................................................... 172 The evolution of the femininity tests ............................................................... 175 The IAAF’s working group ................................................................. 175 The IOC’s new sex test .......................................................................